CHAPTER VII—Incarnate Human Gods
1315 A reminiscence of this evolution is preserved in the Brahman theology, according to which the gods were at first mortal and dwelt on earth with men, but afterwards attained immortality and ascended to heaven by means of sacrifice. See S. Lévi, La Doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brâhmanas (Paris, 1898), pp. 37–43, 59–61, 84 sq.
1317 Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 268. However, as to the son of the carpenter it is said that “his followers scarcely worshipped him as a god, yet they fully believed in his power of working miracles.”
1318 W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, Second Edition (London, 1832–36), i. 372–5.
1319 W. W. Gill, Myths and Songs of the South Pacific (London, 1876), p. 35.
1320 Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author, dated August 26, 1898.
1321 F. A. Liefrinck, “Bijdrage tot de Kennis van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 260 sq.
1322 A. C. Kruijt, “Mijne eerste ervaringen te Poso,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xxxvi. (1892) pp. 399–403.
1323 Satapatha-Brâhmana, part ii. pp. 4, 38, 42, 44, translated by J. Eggeling (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi.).
1324 Op. cit. p. 20.
1325 Op. cit. p. 29.
1326 Satapatha-Brâhmana, part i. p. 4, translated by J. Eggeling (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii.). On the deification of the sacrificer in the Brahman ritual see H. Hubert and M. Mauss, “Essai sur le sacrifice,” L’Année sociologique, ii. (1897–1898), pp. 48 sqq.
1327 S. Lévi, La Doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brâhmanas (Paris, 1898), pp. 102–108; Hubert and Mauss, loc. cit.; Satapatha-Brâhmana, trans. by J. Eggeling, part ii. pp. 18–20, 25–35, 73, part v. pp. 23 sq. (Sacred Books of the East, vols. xxvi. and xliv.).
1328 See for examples E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture,² ii. 131 sq.
1329 Pausanias, ii. 24. 1. In 1902 the site of the temple was identified by means of inscriptions which mention the oracle. See Berliner philologische Wochenschrift, April 11, 1903, coll. 478 sq.
1330 Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. 147. Pausanias (vii. 25. 13) mentions the draught of bull’s blood as an ordeal to test the chastity of the priestess. Doubtless it was thought to serve both purposes.
1331 Bishop R. Caldwell, “On Demonolatry in Southern India,” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, i. 101 sq. For a description of a similar rite performed at Periepatam in southern India see Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Edition, x. 313 sq. In this latter case the performer was a woman, and the animal whose hot blood she drank was a pig.
1332 E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, iv. 187.
1333 J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xviii. 517 sq. Compare “De godsdienst en godsdienst-plegtigheden der Alfoeren in de Menhassa op het eiland Celebes,” Tijdschrift van Nederlandsch Indië, 1849, dl. ii. p. 395; N. Graafland, De Minahassa, i. 122; J. Dumont D’Urville, Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La Perouse, v. 443.
1334 F. J. Mone, Geschichte des Heidenthums im nördlichen Europa (Leipsic and Darmstadt, 1822–23), i. 188.
1335 J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh (Calcutta, 1880), p. 96. For other instances of priests or representatives of the deity drinking the warm blood of the victim, compare H. A. Oldfield, Sketches from Nipal (London, 1880), ii. 296 sq.; Asiatic Researches, iv. pp. 40, 41, 50, 52 (8vo ed.); Paul Soleillet, L’Afrique Occidentale (Paris, 1877), pp. 123 sq. To snuff up the savour of the sacrifice was similarly supposed to produce inspiration (Tertullian, Apologet. 23).
1336 C. F. Oldham, “The Nagas,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1901 (London, 1901), pp. 463, 465 sq., 467, 470 sq. The Takhas worship the cobra, and Mr. Oldham believes them to be descended from the Nagas of the Mahabharata.
1337 Maimonides, quoted by D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus (St. Petersburg, 1856), ii. 480 sq.
1338 J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, p. 97.
1339 Lucian, Bis accus. 1; J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 6; Plutarch, De E apud Delphos, 2; id., De Pythiae oraculis, 6.
1340 Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae, 112.
1341 Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 42.
1342 C. Lekkerkerker, “Enkele opmerkingen over sporen van Shamanisme bij Madoereezen en Javanen,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xlv. (1902) pp. 282–284.
1343 H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk (Leipsic, 1885), p. 158.
1344 Plutarch, De defect. oracul. 46, 49, 51. The Greeks themselves seem commonly to have interpreted the shaking or nodding of the victim’s head as a token that the animal consented to be sacrificed. See Plutarch, Quaest. conviv. viii. 8. 7; Scholiast on Aristophanes, Peace, 960; Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, Argon. i. 425; and this explanation has been adopted by modern interpreters. See A. Willems, Notes sur la Paix d’Aristophane (Brussels, 1899), pp. 30–33; E. Monseur, in Bulletin de Folklore, 1903, pp. 216–229. But this interpretation can hardly be extended to the case of the Delphic victim which was expected to shake all over. The theory of possession applies equally to that and to the other cases, and is therefore preferable. The theory of consent may have been invented when the older view had ceased to be held and was forgotten.
1345 D. Chwolsohn, Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, ii. 37; Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, xvi. 230 sq.; E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 827; Panjab Notes and Queries, iii. p. 171, § 721; North Indian Notes and Queries, i. p. 3, § 4; W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 263; Indian Antiquary, xxviii. (1899) p. 161; Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay, i. 103; S. Mateer, The Land of Charity, p. 216; id., Native Life in Travancore, p. 94; E. T. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, iii. 466, 469; Sir A. C. Lyall, Asiatic Studies, First Series (London, 1899), p. 19; J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh, p. 131; P. S. Pallas, Reisen in verschiedenen Provinzen des russischen Reiches, i. 91; H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk, p. 485; Erman, Archiv für wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland, i. 377; “Über die Religion der heidnischen Tscheremissen im Gouvernement Kasan,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, N.F. iii. (1857) p. 153; Globus, lxvii. (1895) p. 366. When the Rao of Kachh sacrifices a buffalo, water is sprinkled between its horns; if it shakes its head, it is unsuitable; if it nods its head, it is sacrificed (Panjab Notes and Queries, i. p. 120, § 911). This is probably a modern misinterpretation of the old custom.
1346 Sir George Scott Robertson, The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush (London, 1896), p. 423.
1347 J. Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge (Paris, 1883), i. 177 sq. The practice in Tonquin is similar, except that there the person possessed seems only to give oracles. See Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi, iv. (1830) pp. 331 sq.
1348 Pausanias, x. 32, 6. Coins of Magnesia exhibit on the reverse a man carrying an uprooted tree. See F. B. Baker, in Numismatic Chronicle, Third Series, xii. (1892) pp. 89 sqq. Mr. Baker suggests that the custom may be a relic of ancient tree-worship.
1349 C. S. Stewart, A Visit to the South Seas (London, 1832), i. 244 sq.; Vincendon-Dumoulin et C. Desgraz, Îles Marquises ou Nouka-Hiva (Paris, 1843), pp. 226, 240 sq. Compare Mathias G * * * , Lettres sur les Îles Marquises (Paris, 1843), pp. 44 sq. The general name applied to these human gods was atuas, which, “with scarce a modification, is the term used in all the Polynesian dialects to designate the ideal beings worshipped as gods, in the system of polytheism existing among the people. At the Washington Islands, as at other groups, the atuas, or false gods of the inhabitants, are numerous and vary in their character and powers. Besides those having dominion respectively, as is supposed, over the different elements and their most striking phenomena, there are atuas of the mountain and of the forest, of the seaside and of the interior, atuas of peace and of war, of the song and of the dance, and of all the occupations and amusements of life. It is supposed by them that many of the departed spirits of men also become atuas: and thus the multiplicity of their gods is such, that almost every sound in nature, from the roaring of the tempest in the mountains and the bursting of a thunderbolt in the clouds, to the sighing of a breeze through the cocoa-nut tops and the chirping of an insect in the grass or in the thatch of their huts, is interpreted into the movements of a god” (C. S. Stewart, op. cit. i. 243 sq.). The missionary referred to in the text, who described one of the human gods from personal observation, was the Rev. Mr. Crooke of the London Missionary Society, who resided in the island of Tahuata in 1797. On the deification of living men see Lord Avebury (Sir John Lubbock), Origin of Civilisation⁴ (London, 1882), pp. 354 sqq.
1350 J. A. Moerenhout, Voyages aux Îles du Grand Océan (Paris, 1837), i. 479; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, Second Edition (London, 1832–1836), iii. 94.
1351 D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, Journal of Voyages and Travels in the South Sea Islands, China, India, etc. (London, 1831), i. 524; compare ibid. pp. 529 sq.
1352 Tyerman and Bennet, op. cit. i. 529 sq.
1353 W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches,² iii. 108. The Ethnological Museum at Berlin possesses a magnificent robe of red and yellow feathers with a feather helmet, also two very handsome tippets of the same materials. They were the insignia of the royal family of Hawaii, and might be worn by no one else.
1354 J. Williams, Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South Sea Islands (London, 1838), pp. 471 sq.
1355 W. Ellis, op. cit. iii. 113 sq.
1356 Missionary Chevron, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xv. (1843) p. 37. Compare id. xiii. (1841) p. 378.
1357 G. Turner, Samoa, pp. 37, 48, 57, 58, 59, 73.
1358 Hazlewood, in J. E. Erskine’s Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific (London, 1853), pp. 246 sq. Compare Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the U.S. Exploring Expedition, New Edition (New York, 1851), iii. 87; Th. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians,² i. 219 sq.; R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 122. “A great chief [in Fiji] really believed himself to be a god—i.e. a reincarnation of an ancestor who had grown into a god” (Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to the author, dated August 26, 1898).
1359 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde (Berlin, 1888), i. 30 sqq.
1360 Porphyry, De abstinentia, iv. 9; Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelii, iii. 12; compare Minucius Felix, Octavius, 29. The titles of the nomarchs or provincial governors of Egypt seem to shew that they were all originally worshipped as gods by their subjects (A. Wiedemann, Die Religion der alten Ägypter, p. 93; id. “Menschenvergötterung im alten Ägypten,” Am Urquell, N.F. i. (1897) pp. 290 sq.).
1361 Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 59–62; Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. pp. 12, 14; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,² i. (Berlin, 1906), p. 205. I owe this and the following case of a human god to a lecture on Greek religion by my friend Professor H. Diels, which I was privileged to hear at Berlin in December 1902.
1362 Plutarch, Demetrius, 10–13; Athenaeus, vi. 62 sq., pp. 253 sq. Apparently the giddy young man submitted to deification with a better grace than his rough old father Antigonus; who, when a poet called him a god and a child of the sun, bluntly remarked, “That’s not my valet’s opinion of me.” See Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 24. For more evidence of the deification of living men among the Greeks see Mr. A. B. Cook, in Folk-lore, xv. (1904) pp. 299 sqq.
1363 Tacitus, Germania, 8; id., Histor. iv. 61; Clement of Alexandria, Strom. i. 15. 72, p. 360, ed. Potter; Caesar, Bell. Gall. i. 50.
1364 Tacitus, Germania, 8; id., Histor. iv. 61, 65, v. 22. Compare K. Müllenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde, iv. 208 sqq.
1365 Strabo, vii. 3, 5, pp. 297 sq.
1366 J. Dos Santos, “Eastern Ethiopia,” in G. M’Call Theal’s Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. (1901) pp. 190 sq., 199.
1367 J. Dos Santos, op. cit. p. 295.
1368 F. S. Arnot, Garengauze; or, Seven Years’ Pioneer Mission Work in Central Africa (London, N.D., preface, dated March 1889), p. 78.
1369 Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkunde, vi. (1856) pp. 273 sq. This is from a German abstract (pp. 257–313, 369–420) of a work, which embodies the results of a Portuguese expedition conducted by Major Monteiro in 1831 and 1832. The territory of the Maraves is described as bounded on the south by the Zambesi and on the east by the Portuguese possessions. Probably things have changed greatly in the seventy years which have elapsed since the expedition.
1370 G. W. H. Knight-Bruce, Memories of Mashonaland (London and New York, 1895), p. 43; id., in Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 1890, pp. 346 sq.
1371 Father Croonenberghs, “La Mission du Zambèze,” Missions Catholiques, xiv. (1882) pp. 452 sq.
1372 Ch. L. Norris Newman, Matabeleland and how we got it (London, 1895), pp. 167 sq. These particulars were communicated to Captain Newman by Mr. W. E. Thomas, son of the first missionary to Matabeleland.
1373 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, lii. (1880) pp. 443–445. Compare Father Croonenberghs, “La Mission du Zambèze,” Missions Catholiques, xiv. (1882) p. 452.
1374 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Waganda Tribe of Central Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xiii. (1885–86) p. 762; C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan, i. 206; J. Macdonald, Religion and Myth, pp. 15 sq.
1375 V. L. Cameron, Across Africa (London, 1877), ii. 69.
1376 Mgr. Massaja, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxx. (1858) p. 51.
1377 “The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battel,” in Pinkerton’s Voyages and Travels, xvi. 330; Proyart, “History of Loango, Kakongo, and other Kingdoms in Africa,” in Pinkerton, op. cit. xvi. 577; O. Dapper, Description de l’Afrique, p. 335.
1378 Ogilby, Africa, p. 615; Dapper, op. cit. p. 400.
1379 J. Adams, Sketches taken during ten Voyages to Africa, p. 29; id., Remarks on the Country extending from Cape Palmas to the River Congo (London, 1823), p. 111. Compare “My Wanderings in Africa,” by an F.R.G.S. [R. F. Burton], Fraser’s Magazine, lxvii. (April 1863) p. 414.
1380 W. Allen and T. R. H. Thomson, Narrative of the Expedition to the River Niger in 1841 (London, 1848), i. 288. A slight mental confusion may perhaps be detected in this utterance of the dark-skinned deity. But such confusion, or rather obscurity, is almost inseparable from any attempt to define with philosophic precision the profound mystery of incarnation.
1381 J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), p. 419.
1382 Rev. J. Sibree, “Curiosities of Words connected with Royalty and Chieftainship,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, No. xi. (1887) p. 302; id. in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi. (1892) p. 218.
1383 Rev. J. Sibree, in Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, No. xi. (1887) p. 307; id. in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi. (1892) p. 225.
1384 V. Noel, “Île de Madagascar: recherches sur les Sakkalava,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xx. (1843) p. 56.
1385 W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 23 sq.
1386 T. J. Newbold, Political and Statistical Account of the British Settlement in the Straits of Malacca, ii. 193. See above, pp. 362–364.
1387 W. W. Skeat, op. cit. p. 29.
1388 G. K. N[iemann], “Bijdrage tot de Kennis van den Godsdienst der Bataks,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, iii. Serie, iv. (1870) pp. 289 sq.; B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxviii. 537 sq.; G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme,” De Indische Gids, July 1884, p. 85; id., Handleiding voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië (Leyden, 1893), pp. 369 sq., 612; J. Freiherr von Brenner, Besuch bei den Kannibalen Sumatras (Würzburg, 1894), pp. 340.
1389 W. Marsden, History of Sumatra (London, 1811), pp. 376 sq.
1390 A. C. Kruijt, “Van Paloppo naar Posso,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlii. (1898) p. 22.
1391 F. Valentyn, Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën, iii. 7 sq.
1392 J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 1198 sq.
1393 Sangermano, Description of the Burmese Empire (reprinted at Rangoon, 1885), pp. 63 sq.
1394 E. Aymonier, Le Cambodge, ii. (Paris, 1901) p. 25.
1395 E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (Westminster, 1898), pp. 142 sq. Similarly, special sets of terms are or have been used with reference to persons of royal blood in Burma (Forbes, British Burma, pp. 71 sq.; Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 118 sqq.), Cambodia (Lemire, Cochinchine française et le royaume de Cambodge, p. 447), the Malay Peninsula (W. W. Skeat, Malay Magic, p. 35), Travancore (S. Mateer, Native Life in Travancore, p. 129), the Pelew Islands (K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln, pp. 309 sq.), Ponape, one of the Caroline Islands (Dr. Hahl, “Mitteilungen über Sitten und rechtliche Verhältnisse auf Ponape,” Ethnologisches Notizblatt, ii. Heft 2 (Berlin, 1901), p. 5), Samoa (L. Th. Violette, in Missions Catholiques, iii. (1870) p. 190; J. E. Newell, “Chief’s Language in Samoa,” Transactions of the Ninth International Congress of Orientalists, London, 1893, ii. 784–799), the Maldives (Fr. Pyrard, Voyage to the East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas, and Brazil, Hakluyt Society, i. 226), in some parts of Madagascar (J. Sibree, in The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, No. xi., Christmas 1887, pp. 310 sqq.; id., in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi. (1892) pp. 215 sqq.), among the Bawenda of the Transvaal (Beuster, “Das Volk der Vawenda,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, xiv. (1879) p. 238), and among the Natchez Indians of North America (Du Pratz, History of Louisiana, p. 328). When we remember that special vocabularies of this sort have been employed with regard to kings or chiefs who are known to have enjoyed a divine or semi-divine character, as in Tahiti (see above, p. 388), Fiji (Th. Williams, Fiji and the Fijians,² i. 37), and Tonga (W. Mariner, Tonga Islands, ii. 79), we shall be inclined to surmise that the existence of such a practice anywhere is indicative of a tendency to deify royal personages, who are thus marked off from their fellows. This would not necessarily apply to a custom of using a special dialect or particular forms of speech in addressing social superiors generally, such as prevails in Java (T. S. Raffles, History of Java, i. 310, 366 sqq., London, 1817), and Bali (R. Friederich, “Voorloopig Verslag van het eiland Bali,” Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, xxii. 4; J. Jacobs, Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs, p. 36).
1396 A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, iv. 383.
1397 S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day (Chicago, 1902), p. 102.
1398 W. E. Marshall, Travels amongst the Todas (London, 1873), pp. 136, 137; cp. pp. 141, 142; F. Metz, Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills, Second Edition (Mangalore, 1864), pp. 19 sqq. However, at the present day, according to Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, the palol or milkman of the highest class is rather a sacred priest than a god. But there is a tradition that the gods held the office of milkman, and even now the human milkman of one particular dairy is believed to be the direct successor of a god. See W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas (London, 1906), pp. 448 sq.
1399 Monier Williams, Religious Life and Thought in India, p. 259.
1400 The Laws of Manu, vii. 8, p. 217, translated by G. Bühler (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv.).
1401 Id. ix. 317, 319, pp. 398, 399.
1402 Satapatha-Brâhmana, trans. by J. Eggeling, part i. pp. 309 sq.; compare id., part ii. p. 341 (Sacred Books of the East, vols. xii. and xxvi.).
1403 Monier Williams, op. cit. p. 457.
1404 Monier Williams, op. cit. pp. 201 sq.
1405 Monier Williams, op. cit. pp. 259 sq.
1406 I have borrowed the description of this particular deity from the Rev. Dr. A. M. Fairbairn, who knew him personally (Contemporary Review, June 1899, p. 768). It is melancholy to reflect that in our less liberal land the divine Swami would probably have been consigned to the calm seclusion of a gaol or a madhouse. The difference between a god and a madman or a criminal is often merely a question of latitude and longitude.
Swami departed this life in August 1899 at the age of about seventy. It is only fair to his memory to add that the writer who records his death bears high and honourable testimony to the noble and unselfish character of the deceased, who is said to have honestly repudiated the miraculous powers ascribed to him by his followers. He was worshipped in temples during his life, and other temples have been erected to him since his death. See Rai Bahadur Lala Baij Nath, B.A., Hinduism Ancient and Modern (Meerut, 1905), pp. 94 sq.
1407 E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, iv. 236, 280.
1408 E. Thurston, Ethnographic Notes in Southern India (Madras, 1906), p. 301.
1409 Captain Edward Moor, “Account of an Hereditary Living Deity,” Asiatic Researches, vii. (London, 1803) pp. 381–395; Viscount Valentia, Voyages and Travels, ii. 151–159; Ch. Coleman, Mythology of the Hindus (London, 1832), pp. 106–111; Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, xviii. part iii. (Bombay, 1885) pp. 125 sq. I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Crooke for calling my attention to the second and fourth of these works. To be exact, I should say that I have no information as to this particular deity later than the account given of him in the eighteenth volume of the Bombay Gazetteer, published some twenty-five years ago. But I think we may assume that the same providential reasons which prolonged the revelation down to the publication of the Gazetteer have continued it to the present time.
1410 Monier Williams, op. cit. pp. 136 sq. A full account of the doctrines and practices of the sect may be found in the History of the Sect of the Maharajas or Vallabhacharyas, published by Trübner at London in 1865. My attention was directed to it by my friend Mr. W. Crooke.
1411 A. Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, i. 321.
1412 F. C. Conybeare, “The History of Christmas,” American Journal of Theology, iii. (1899) pp. 18 sq. Mr. Conybeare kindly lent me a proof of this article, and the statement in the text is based on it. In the published article the author has made some changes.
1413 D. Mackenzie Wallace, Russia (London, Paris, and New York, N.D.), p. 302. The passage in the text is “a short extract from a description of the ‘Khlysti’ by one who was initiated into their mysteries.” As to these Russian Christs see further N. Tsakni, La Russie sectaire (Paris, N.D.), pp. 63 sqq. Amongst the means which these sectaries take to produce a state of religious exaltation are wild, whirling dances like those of the dancing Dervishes.
1414 J. L. Mosheim, Ecclesiastical History (London, 1819), iii. 278 sqq.
1415 J. L. Mosheim, op. cit. iii. 288 sq.
1416 Mgr. Flaget, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, vii. (1834) p. 84. Mgr. Flaget was bishop of Bardstown, and his letter is dated May 4, 1833. He says that the events happened in a neighbouring state about three years before he wrote.
1417 D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography (Calcutta, 1883), p. 123.
1418 G. Massaja, I miei trentacinque anni di missione nell’ alta Etiopia (Rome and Milan, 1888), v. 53 sq. Compare Father Leon des Avanchers, in Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Vme Série, xvii. (1869) p. 307.
1419 E. Aymonier, Notes sur le Laos (Saigon, 1885), pp. 141 sq.; id., Voyage dans le Laos, ii. (Paris, 1897) p. 47.
1420 W. Robinson, Descriptive Account of Assam (London and Calcutta, 1841), pp. 342 sq.; Asiatic Researches, xv. 146.
1421 Huc, Souvenirs d’un voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet, i. 279 sqq., ed. 12mo. For more details, see L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (London, 1895), pp. 245 sqq. Compare G. Timkowski, Travels of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, i. 23–25; Abbé Armand David, “Voyage en Mongolie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), VIme Série, ix. (1875) pp. 132–134; Mgr Bruguière, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, ix. (1836) pp. 296 sq.; Father Gabet, ib. xx. (1848) pp. 229–231; G. Sandberg, Tibet and the Tibetans (London, 1906), pp. 128 sqq. In the Delta of the Niger the souls of little negro babies are identified by means of a similar test. An assortment of small wares that belonged to deceased members of the family is shewn to the new baby, and the first thing he grabs at identifies him. “Why, he’s uncle John,” they say; “see! he knows his own pipe.” Or, “That’s cousin Emma; see! she knows her market calabash” (Miss M. H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa, p. 493).
1422 Huc, op. cit. ii. 279, 347 sq.; C. Meiners, Geschichte der Religionen, i. 335 sq.; J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs, p. 415; A. Erman, Travels in Siberia, ii. 303 sqq.; Journal of the Roy. Geogr. Soc. xxxviii. (1868) pp. 168, 169; Proceedings of the Roy. Geogr. Soc. N.S. vii. (1885) p. 67; Sarat Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet (London, 1902), pp. 159 sq. The Grand Lama’s palace is called Potala. Views of it from a photograph and from a drawing are given by Sarat Chandra Das. In the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, l.c., the Lama in question is called the Lama Gûrû; but the context shows that he is the great Lama of Lhasa.
1423 Thevenot, Relations des divers voyages, iv. Partie (Paris, 1672), “Voyage à la Chine des PP. I. Grueber et d’Orville,” pp. 1 sq., 22.
1424 E. Pander (professor at the University of Peking), “Das lamaische Pantheon,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxi. (1889) p. 76; id., “Geschichte des Lamaismus,” Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1889, p. (202).
1425 Mgr Danicourt, “Rapport sur l’origine, les progrès et la décadence de la secte des Tao-sse, en Chine,” Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxx. (1858) pp. 15–20; J. H. Gray, China (London, 1878), i. 103 sq.; Dr. Merz, “Bericht über seine erste Reise von Amoy nach Kui-kiang,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, xxiii. (1888) pp. 413–416.
1426 Garcilasso de la Vega, First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, bk. ii. chs. 8 and 15 (vol. i. pp. 131, 155, Markham’s translation). This writer tells us that the Peruvian Indians “held their kings not only to be possessed of royal majesty, but to be gods” (ib. bk. iv. ch. v. vol. i. p. 303, Markham’s Trans.). Mr. E. J. Payne denies that the Incas believed in their descent from the sun, and stigmatises as a ridiculous fable the notion that they were worshipped as gods (History of the New World called America, i. 506, 512). I content myself with reproducing the statements of Garcilasso de la Vega, who had ample means of ascertaining the truth. His good faith has been questioned, but, as I believe, on insufficient grounds. See below, vol. ii. p. 244 note¹.
1427 Alex. von Humboldt, Researches concerning the Institutions and Monuments of the Ancient Inhabitants of America, ii. 106 sqq.; H. Ternaux-Compans, Essai sur l’ancien Cundinamarca, pp. 14 sq., 19 sq., 40 sq.; Th. Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, iv. 352 sqq.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen, pp. 430 sq.; C. F. Ph. v. Martius, Zur Ethnographie Amerikas, p. 455; A. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, ii. 204 sq.
1429 H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, ii. 146.
1430 Manuscrit Ramirez: Histoire de l’origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), p. 107; J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, ii. 505, 508 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880).
1431 J. J. M. de Groot, Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China, i. (Amsterdam, 1903), pp. 17 sq.
1432 Manners and Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Century: from recent Dutch visitors to Japan and the German of Dr. Ph. Fr. von Siebold (London, 1841), pp. 141 sqq.
1433 H. Radau, Early Babylonian History (New York and London, 1900), pp. 307–317. Compare C. Brockelmann, “Wesen und Ursprung des Eponymats in Assyrien,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie, xvi. (1902) p. 394; H. Zimmern, in E. Schrader’s Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament³ (Berlin, 1903), pp. 379, 639 sq.
1434 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6, §§ 5 and 6.
1435 C. P. Tiele, History of the Egyptian Religion, pp. 103 sq. On the worship of the kings see also E. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums,² i. 2. § 219, pp. 142 sq.; A. Erman, Ägypten und ägyptisches Leben im Altertum, pp. 91 sqq.; id., Die ägyptische Religion (Berlin, 1905), pp. 39 sq.; V. von Strauss und Carnen, Die altägyptischen Götter und Göttersagen, pp. 467 sqq.; A. Wiedemann, Die Religion der alten Ägypter, pp. 92 sq.; id., “Menschenvergötterung im alten Ägypten,” Am Urquelle, N.F. i. (1897), pp. 289 sqq.; id., Herodots zweites Buch, pp. 274 sq.; G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l’Orient classique: les origines, pp. 258–267; E. Naville, La Religion des anciens Égyptiens (Paris, 1906), pp. 225 sqq. Diodorus Siculus observed (i. 90) that “the Egyptians seem to worship and honour their kings as very gods.”
1436 P. le P. Renouf, “The priestly Character of the earliest Egyptian Civilisation,” Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, xii. (1890) p. 355.
1437 A. Moret, Du caractère religieux de la royauté pharaonique (Paris, 1902), pp. 278 sq.; compare ib. pp. 313.
1438 A. Moret, op. cit. p. 306.
1439 A. Moret, op. cit. p. 310.
1440 A. Moret, op. cit. p. 299.
1441 A. Moret, op. cit. p. 233.
1442 V. von Strauss und Carnen, op. cit. p. 470. On the titles of the Egyptian kings see further A. Moret, op. cit. pp. 17–38.
1443 C. P. Tiele, History of the Egyptian Religion, p. 105. Compare A. Moret, op. cit. pp. 71 sq., 312.
1444 In regard to the natives of the western islands of Torres Straits it has been remarked by Dr. A. C. Haddon that the magicians or sorcerers “constituted the only professional class among these democratic islanders” (Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, v. 321). The same observation could be applied to many other savage tribes.
1445 For example, amongst the Todas the medicine-man has been differentiated from the sorcerer; yet their common origin is indicated by their both using the same kind of magical formulas or spells to accomplish their different ends. See Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas, p. 271: “It seems clear that the Todas have advanced beyond the stage of human culture in which all misfortunes are produced by magic. They recognise that some ills are not due to human intervention, but yet they employ the same kind of means to remove these ills as are employed to remove those brought about by human agency. The advance of the Todas is shown most clearly by the differentiation of function between pilikòren and utkòren, between sorcerers and medicine-men, and we seem to have here a clear indication of the differentiation between magic and medicine. The two callings are followed by different men, who are entirely distinct from one another, but both use the same kind of formula to bring about the effect they desire to produce.”
