Footnotes
See above, vol. i. pp. 16 sqq.
Herodotus, ii. 46; L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie,4 i. (Berlin, 1894), pp. 745 sq.; K. Wernicke, in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, iii. 1407 sqq.
L. Preller, Griechische Mythologie,3 i. 600; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 138.
W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 139.
Julius Pollux, iv. 118.
W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 142 sq.
Ovid, Fasti, ii. 361, iii. 312, v. 101; id., Heroides, iv. 49.
Macrobius, Sat. i. 22. 3.
Homer, Hymn to Aphrodite, 262 sqq.
Pliny, Nat. Hist. xii. 3; Ovid, Metam. vi. 392; id., Fasti, iii. 303, 309; Gloss. Isid. Mart. Cap. ii. 167, cited by W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 113.
Pliny, Nat. Hist. xii. 3; Martianus Capella, ii. 167; Augustine, De civitate Dei, xv. 23; Aurelius Victor, Origo gentis Romanae, iv. 6.
Servius on Virgil, Ecl. vi. 14; Ovid, Metam. vi. 392 sq.; Martianus Capella, ii. 167.
W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, pp. 138 sq.; id., Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 145.
Servius on Virgil, Georg. i. 10.
Above, vol. i. pp. 281 sqq.
Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, ch. iii. pp. 113-211. In the text I have allowed my former exposition of Mannhardt's theory as to ancient semi-goat-shaped spirits of vegetation to stand as before, but I have done so with hesitation, because the evidence adduced in its favour appears to me insufficient to permit us to speak with any confidence on the subject. Pan may have been, as W. H. Roscher and L. R. Farnell think, nothing more than a herdsman's god, the semi-human, semi-bestial representative of goats in particular. See W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, iii. 1405 sq.; L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, v. (Oxford, 1909) pp. 431 sqq. And the Satyrs and Silenuses seem to have more affinity with horses than with goats. See W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der griech. und röm. Mythologie, iv. 444 sqq.
Above, vol. i. pp. 231 sqq.
Above, vol. i. pp. 17 sq.
Above, vol. i. pp. 16 sq.
Above, vol. i. pp. 288 sqq.
A. Lang, Myth, Ritual, and Religion,2 ii. 252.
Compare Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 12 sqq.
Pausanias, i. 24. 4; id., i. 28. 10; Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 29 sq.; Aelian, Var. Hist. viii. 3; Scholia on Aristophanes, Peace, 419, and Clouds, 985; Hesychius, Suidas, and Etymologicum Magnum, s.v. βούφονια; Suidas, s.v. Θαύλων; Im. Bekker's Anecdota Graeca (Berlin, 1814-1821), p. 238, s.v. Δυπόλια. The date of the sacrifice (14th Skirophorion) is given by the Scholiast on Aristophanes and the Etymologicum Magnum; and this date corresponds, according to W. Mannhardt (Mythologische Forschungen, p. 68), with the close of the threshing in Attica. No writer mentions the trial of both the axe and the knife. Pausanias speaks of the trial of the axe, Porphyry and Aelian of the trial of the knife. But from Porphyry's description it is clear that the slaughter was carried out by two men, one wielding an axe and the other a knife, and that the former laid the blame on the latter. Perhaps the knife alone was condemned. That the King (as to whom see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 44 sq.) presided at the trial of all lifeless objects, is mentioned by Aristotle (Constitution of Athens, 57) and Julius Pollux (viii. 90, compare viii. 120).
The real import of the name bouphonia was first perceived by W. Robertson Smith. See his Religion of the Semites,2 pp. 304 sqq. In Cos also an ox specially chosen was sacrificed to Zeus Polieus. See Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 616; Ch. Michel, Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques, No. 716; H. Collitz und F. Bechtel, Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-Inschriften, iii. pp. 357 sqq., No. 3636; J. de Prott et L. Ziehen, Leges Graecorum Sacrae e Titulis collectae, Fasciculus i. (Leipsic, 1896) pp. 19 sqq., No. 5; M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 17-21. A month Bouphonion, corresponding to the Attic Boedromion (September), occurred in the calendars of Delos and Tenos. See E. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecorum antiquioribus,” in Leipziger Studien für classische Philologie, vii. (Leipsic, 1884) p. 414.
Varro, De re rustica, ii. 5. 4. Compare Columella, De re rustica, vi. praef. § 7. Perhaps, however, Varro's statement may be merely an inference drawn from the ritual of the bouphonia and the legend told to explain it.
W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus, p. 409.
See The Dying God, p. 208.
Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum2 (Leipsic, 1898-1901), vol. ii. pp. 246-248, No. 553. As to the identification of the Magnesian month Artemision with the Attic month Thargelion (May), see Dittenberger, op. cit. ii. p. 242, No. 552 note 4. It is interesting to observe that at Magnesia the sowing took place in Cronion, the month of Cronus, a god whom the ancients regularly identified with Saturn, the Italian god of sowing. In Samos, Perinthus, and Patmos, however, the month Cronion seems to have been equivalent to the Attic Scirophorion, a month corresponding to June or July, which could never have been a season of sowing in the hot rainless summers of Greece. See E. Bischoff, “De fastis Graecarum antiquioribus,” in Leipziger Studien für classische Philologie, vii. (1884) p. 400; Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 645 note 14, vol. ii. p. 449.
In thus interpreting the sacrifice of the bull at Magnesia I follow the excellent exposition of Professor M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 23-27.
See above, vol. i. pp. 36 sq., 65 sqq.
H. Hecquard, Reise an die Küste und in das Innere von West-Afrika (Leipsic, 1854), pp. 41-43.
See above, vol. i. p. 248.
Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.
Franz Cumont, Textes et Monuments figurés relatifs aux Mystères de Mithra (Brussels, 1896-1899), ii. figures 18, 19, 20, 59 (p. 228, corn-stalks issuing from wound), 67, 70, 78, 87, 105, 143, 168, 215, also plates v. and vi.
China Review, i. (July 1872 to June 1873, Hongkong), pp. 62, 154, 162, 203 sq.; Rev. J. Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, ed. Paxton Hood (London, 1868), pp. 375 sq.; Rev. J. H. Gray, China (London, 1878), ii. 115 sq.
Ostasiatischer Lloyd, March 14, 1890, quoted by J. D. E. Schmeltz, “Das Pflugfest in China,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xi. (1898) p. 79. With this account the one given by S. W. Williams (The Middle Kingdom, New York and London, 1848, ii. 109) substantially agrees. In many districts, according to the Ostasiatischer Lloyd, the Genius of Spring is represented at this festival by a boy of blameless character, clad in green. As to the custom of going with one foot bare and the other shod, see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 311-313.
R. F. Johnston, Lion and Dragon in Northern China (London, 1910), pp. 180-182.
Ed. Chavannes, Le T'ai Chan, Essai de Monographie d'un Culte Chinois (Paris, 1910), p. 500 (Annales du Musée Guimet, Bibliothèque d'Études, vol. xxi.).
See The Dying God, pp. 240 sq., 250.
J. L. Dutreuil de Rhins, Mission Scientifique dans la Haute Asie, 1890-1895, i. (Paris, 1897) pp. 95 sq. After describing the ceremony as he witnessed it at Kashgar, the writer adds: “Probably the ox was at first a living animal which they sacrificed and distributed the flesh to the bystanders. At the present day the official who acts as pontiff has a number of small pasteboard oxen made, which he sends to the notables in order that they may participate intimately in the sacrifice, which is more than symbolical. The reason for carrying the ox a long distance is that as much as possible of the territory may be sanctified by the passage of the sacred animal, and that as many people as possible may share in the sacrifice, at least with their eyes and good wishes. The procession, which begins very early in the morning, moves eastward, that is, toward the quarter where, the winter being now over, the first sun of spring may be expected to appear, whose divinity the ceremony is intended to render propitious. It is needless to insist on the analogy between this Chinese festival and our Carnival, at which, about the same season, a fat ox is led about. Both festivals have their origin in the same conceptions of ancient natural religion.”
Colonel E. Diguet, Les Annamites, Société, Coutumes, Religions (Paris, 1906), pp. 250-253.
See above, vol. i. pp. 41 sq., and below, pp. 21sq.
Du Halde, The General History of China, Third Edition (London, 1741), ii. 120-122; Huc, L'Empire Chinois5 (Paris, 1879), ii. 338-343; Rev. J. H. Gray, China (London, 1878), ii. 116-118. Compare The Sacred Books of China, translated by James Legge, Part iii., The Lî Kî (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvii., Oxford, 1885), pp. 254 sq.: “In this month [the first month of spring] the son of Heaven on the first day prays to God for a good year; and afterwards, the day of the first conjunction of the sun and moon having been chosen, with the handle and share of the plough in the carriage, placed between the man-at-arms who is its third occupant and the driver, he conducts his three ducal ministers, his nine high ministers, the feudal princes and his Great officers, all with their own hands to plough the field of God. The son of Heaven turns up three furrows, each of the ducal ministers five, and the other ministers and feudal princes nine. When they return, he takes in his hand a cup in the great chamber, all the others being in attendance on him and the Great officers, and says, ‘Drink this cup of comfort after your toil.’ In this month the vapours of heaven descend and those of the earth ascend. Heaven and earth are in harmonious co-operation. All plants bud and grow.” Here the selection of a day in spring when sun and moon are in conjunction is significant. Such conjunctions are regarded as marriages of the great luminaries and therefore as the proper seasons for the celebration of rites designed to promote fertility. See The Dying God, p. 73.
See above, pp. 74, 108.
See above, p. 93.
See above, pp. 94, 109; The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 105 sqq.
As to the European customs, see above, p. 12.
See above, vol. i. pp. 298 sqq.
Scholiast on Aristophanes, Acharn. 747.
J. Overbeck, Griechische Kunstmythologie, Besonderer Theil, ii. (Leipsic, 1873-1878), p. 493; Müller-Wieseler, Denkmäler der alten Kunst, ii. pl. viii. 94.
Hyginus, Fab. 277; Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium, 28; Macrobius, Saturn. i. 12. 23; Scholiast on Aristophanes, Acharn. 747; id., on Frogs, 338; id., on Peace, 374; Servius on Virgil, Georg. ii. 380; Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16.
See above, vol. i. pp. 22 sq.
As to the Thesmophoria see my article “Thesmophoria” in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, vol. xxiii, 295 sqq.; August Mommsen, Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 308 sqq.; Miss J. E. Harisson, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion2 (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 120 sqq.; M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 313 sqq.; L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, iii. (Oxford, 1907) pp. 75 sqq. At Thebes and in Delos the Thesmophoria was held in summer, in the month of Metageitnion (August). See Xenophon, Hellenica, v. 2. 29; M. P. Nilsson Griechische Feste, pp. 316 sq.
Photius, Lexicon, s.v. στήνια, speaks of the ascent of Demeter from the lower world; and Clement of Alexandria speaks of both Demeter and Persephone as having been engulfed in the chasm (Protrept. ii. 17). The original equivalence of Demeter and Persephone must be borne steadily in mind.
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 69; Photius, Lexicon, s.v. στήνια.
E. Rohde, “Unedirte Lucians-scholien, die attischen Thesmophorien und Haloen betreffend,” Rheinisches Museum, N.F., xxv. (1870) p. 548; Scholia in Lucianum, ed. H. Rabe (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 275 sq. Two passages of classical writers (Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 17, and Pausanias, ix. 8. 1) refer to the rites described by the scholiast on Lucian, and had been rightly interpreted by Chr. A. Lobeck (Aglaophamus, pp. 827 sqq.) before the discovery of the scholia.
The scholiast speaks of them as megara and adyta. The name megara is thought to be derived from a Phoenician word meaning “cavern,” “subterranean chasm,” the Hebrew מעךה. See F. C. Moyers, Die Phoenizier (Bonn, 1841), i. 220. In Greek usage the megara were properly subterranean vaults or chasms sacred to the gods. See Hesychius, quoted by Movers, l.c. (the passage does not appear in M. Schmidt's minor edition of Hesychius); Porphyry, De antro nympharum, 6; and my note on Pausanias, ii. 2. 1.
We infer this from Pausanias, ix. 8. 1, though the passage is incomplete and apparently corrupt. For ἐν Δωδώνῃ Lobeck (Aglaophamus, pp. 829 sq.) proposed to read ἀναδῦναι or ἀναδοθῆαι. At the spring and autumn festivals of Isis at Tithorea geese and goats were thrown into the adyton and left there till the following festival, when the remains were removed and buried at a certain spot a little way from the temple. See Pausanias, x. 32. 14. This analogy supports the view that the pigs thrown into the caverns at the Thesmophoria were left there till the next festival.
Aelian, De natura animalium, xi. 16; Propertius, v. 8. 3-14. The feeding of the serpent is represented on a Roman coin of about 64 b.c.; on the obverse of the coin appears the head of Juno Caprotina. See E. Babelon, Monnaies de la République Romaine (Paris, 1886), ii. 402. A common type of Greek art represents a woman feeding a serpent out of a saucer. See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, p. 75.
Scholia in Lucianum, ed. H. Rabe, pp. 275 sq.
Ovid, Fasti, iv. 461-466, upon which Gierig remarks, “Sues melius poeta omisisset in hac narratione.” Such is the wisdom of the commentator.
Pausanias, i. 14. 3.
Scholiast on Aristophanes, Frogs, 338.
Above, vol. i. p. 285.
Above, vol. i. p. 290.
Above, vol. i. p. 278.
Above, vol. i. p. 300.
Above, vol. i. pp. 300 sq.
In Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 17, for μεγαρίζοντες χοίρους ἐκβάλλουσι Lobeck (Aglaophamus, p. 831) would read μεγάροις ζῶντας χοίρους ἐμβάλλουσι. For his emendation of Pausanias, see above, p. 18note 1.
It is worth nothing that in Crete, which was an ancient seat of Demeter worship (see above, vol. i. p. 131), the pig was esteemed very sacred and was not eaten (Athenaeus, ix. 18, pp. 375 f-376 a). This would not exclude the possibility of its being eaten sacramentally, as at the Thesmophoria.
Pausanias, viii. 42.
Above, vol. i. pp. 292 sqq.
Pausanias, viii. 25 and 42. At the sanctuary of the Mistress (that is, of Persephone) in Arcadia many terracotta statuettes have been found which represent draped women with the heads of cows or sheep. They are probably votive images of Demeter or Persephone, for the ritual of the sanctuary prescribed the offering of images (Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 939, vol. ii. pp. 803 sq.). See P. Perdrizet, “Terres-cuites de Lycosoura, et mythologie arcadienne,” Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique, xxiii. (1899) p. 635; M. P. Nilsson, Griechische Feste (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 347 sq. On the Phigalian Demeter, see W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen, pp. 244 sqq. I well remember how on a summer afternoon I sat at the mouth of the shallow cave, watching the play of sunshine on the lofty wooded sides of the ravine and listening to the murmur of the stream.
See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, p. 221. On the position of the pig in ancient Oriental and particularly Semitic religion, see F. C. Movers, Die Phoenizier, i. (Bonn, 1841), pp. 218 sqq.
Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, p. 220.
Demosthenes, De corona, p. 313.
The suggestion was made to me in conversation by my lamented friend, the late R. A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge.
See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, p. 8; and to the authorities there cited add Athenaeus, ii. 80, p. 69 b; Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium, 28; Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iv. 5. 3, § 8; Aristides, Apologia, II, p. 107, ed. J. Rendel Harris (Cambridge, 1891); Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iv. 44; Propertius, iii. 4 (5). 53 sq., ed. F. A. Paley; Lactantius, Divin. Instit. i. 17; Augustine, De civitate Dei, vi. 7; Firmicus Maternus, De errore profanarum religionum, 9; Macrobius, Saturnal. i. 21. 4. See further W. W. Graf Baudissin, Adonis und Esmun (Leipsic, 1911), pp. 142 sqq.
See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, p. 186.
W. Cureton, Spicilegium Syriacum (London, 1855), p. 44.
Lucian, De dea Syria, 54.
The heathen Harranians sacrificed swine once a year and ate the flesh (En-Nedîm, in D. Chwolsohn's Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus, St. Petersburg, 1856, ii. 42). My friend W. Robertson Smith conjectured that the wild boars annually sacrificed in Cyprus on 2nd April (Joannes Lydus, De mensibus, iv. 45) represented Adonis himself. See his Religion of the Semites,2 pp. 290 sq., 411.
Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iv. 5.
Isaiah lxv. 3, lxvi. 3, 17. Compare R. H. Kennett, The Composition of the Book of Isaiah in the Light of History and Archaeology (London, 1910) p. 61, who suggests that the eating of the mouse as a sacrament may have been derived from the Greek worship of the Mouse Apollo (Apollo Smintheus). As to the Mouse Apollo see below, pp. 282 sq.
Herodotus, ii. 47; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 8; Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16. Josephus merely says that the Egyptian priests abstained from the flesh of swine (Contra Apionem, ii. 13).
Herodotus, l.c.
Plutarch and Aelian, ll.cc.
Herodotus, l.c. At Castabus in Chersonese there was a sacred precinct of Hemithea, which no one might approach who had touched or eaten of a pig (Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5).
Herodotus, ii. 47 sq.; Aelian and Plutarch, ll.cc. Herodotus distinguishes the sacrifice to the moon from that to Osiris. According to him, at the sacrifice to the moon, the extremity of the pig's tail, together with the spleen and the caul, was covered with fat and burned; the rest of the flesh was eaten. On the evening (not the eve, see H. Stein's note on the passage) of the festival the sacrifice to Osiris took place. Each man slew a pig before his door, then gave it to the swineherd, from whom he had bought it, to take away.
J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), pp. 432, 452.
Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), p. 225; Miss A. C. Fletcher and F. la Flesche, “The Omaha Tribe,” Twenty-seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington, 1911), p. 144. According to the latter writers, any breach of a clan taboo among the Omahas was supposed to be punished either by the breaking out of sores or white spots on the body of the offender or by his hair turning white.
Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, op. cit. p. 231.
J. Crevaux, Voyages dans l'Amérique du Sud (Paris, 1883), p. 59.
Plutarch, De superstitione, 10; Porphyry, De abstinentia, iv. 15. As to the sanctity of fish among the Syrians, see also Ovid, Fasti, ii. 473 sq.; Diodorus Siculus, ii. 4.
R. Sutherland Rattray, Some Folklore Stories and Songs in Chinyanja (London, 1907), pp. 174 sq.
Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 307, compare p. 317.
E. Nigmann, Die Wahehe (Berlin, 1908), p. 42.
J. Kohler, “Das Banturecht in Ostafrika,” Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, xv. (1902) pp. 2, 3.
C. W. Hobley, “Anthropological Studies in Kavirondo and Nandi,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxiii. (1903) p. 347.
Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey, II. Draft Articles on Uriya Castes (Allahabad, 1907), p. 16.
C. Creighton, s.v. “Leprosy,” Encyclopaedia Biblica, iii. col. 2766.
2 Kings v. 27; 2 Chronicles xxvi. 16-21.
Leviticus xvi. 23 sq.
Porphyry, De abstinentia, ii. 44. For this and the Jewish examples I am indebted to my friend W. Robertson Smith. Compare his Religion of the Semites,2 pp. 351, 426, 450 sq.
Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey, VII. Draft Articles on Forest Tribes (Allahabad, 1911), p. 97.
Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey, I. Draft Articles on Hindustani Castes (Allahabad, 1907), p. 32.
See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 133 sq.
Op. cit. pp. 134-136.
E. Casalis, The Basutos (London, 1861), p. 211; D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (London, 1857), p. 255; John Mackenzie, Ten Years north of the Orange River (Edinburgh, 1871), p. 135 note. See further Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 372.
J. Mackenzie, l.c.
Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), p. 225.
Ibid. p. 275.
G. Turner, Samoa (London, 1884), p. 76.
Ibid. p. 70.
Captain C. Eckford Luard, in Census of India, 1901, vol. xix. Central India, Part i. (Lucknow, 1902) pp. 299 sq.; also Census of India, 1901, vol. i. Ethnographic Appendices (Calcutta, 1903), p. 163.
Diogenes Laertius, Vitae Philosophorum, viii. 8.
Aelian, Nat. Anim. x. 16. The story is repeated by Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. 168.
E. Lefébure, Le Mythe Osirien, Première Partie, Les yeux d'Horus (Paris, 1874), p. 44; The Book of the Dead, English translation by E. A. Wallis Budge (London, 1901), ii. 336 sq., chapter cxii.; E. A. Wallis Budge, The Gods of the Egyptians (London, 1904), i. 496 sq.; id., Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (London and New York, 1911), i. 62 sq.
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 8. E. Lefébure (op. cit. p. 46) recognises that in this story the boar is Typhon himself.
This important principle was first recognised by W. Robertson Smith. See his article, “Sacrifice,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, xxi. 137 sq. Compare his Religion of the Semites,2 pp. 373, 410 sq.
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 31.
H. B. Tristram, The Natural History of the Bible, Ninth Edition (London, 1898), pp. 54 sq.
Rev. J. Shooter, The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country (London, 1857), pp. 18-20.
Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (London, 1906), pp. 182 sq.
E. Modigliano, Un Viaggio a Nías (Milan, 1890), pp. 524 sq., 601.
A. E. Jenks, The Bontoc Igorot, (Manilla, 1905), pp. 100, 102.
A. Bastian, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Gebirgs-stämme in Kambodia,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, i. (1866) p. 44.
G. Snouck Hurgronje, Het Gajōland en zijne Bewoners (Batavia, 1903), p. 348.
Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea (Berlin, 1911), p. 125.
E. Lefébure, Le Mythe Osirien, Première Partie, Les yeux d'Horus (Paris, 1874), pp. 48 sq.
See above, pp. 260 sq.; Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 331, 338.
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 33, 73; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88.
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 88. Compare Herodotus, ii. 38.
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 20, 29, 33, 43; Strabo, xvii. 1. 31; Diodorus Siculus, i. 21, 85; Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums,5 i. 55 sqq. On Apis and Mnevis, see also Herodotus, ii. 153, with A. Wiedemann's comment, iii. 27 sq.; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7; Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 184 sqq.; Solinus, xxxii. 17-21; Cicero, De natura deorum, i. 29; Augustine, De civitate Dei, xviii. 5; Aelian, Nat. Anim. xi. 10 sq.; Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. viii. 1. 3; id., Isis et Osiris, 5, 35; Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelii, iii. 13. 1 sq.; Pausanias, i. 18. 4, vii. 22. 3 sq.; W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci Inscriptiones Selectae (Leipsic, 1903-1905), Nos. 56, 90 (vol. i. pp. 98, 106, 159). Both Apis and Mnevis were black bulls, but Apis had certain white spots. See A. Wiedemann, Die Religion der alten Aegypter (Münster i. W., 1890), pp. 95, 99-101. When Apis died, pious people used to put on mourning and to fast, drinking only water and eating only vegetables, for seventy days till the burial. See A. Erman, Die ägyptische Religion (Berlin, 1905), pp. 170 sq.
Diodorus Siculus, i. 21.
On the religious reverence of pastoral peoples for their cattle, and the possible derivation of the Apis and Isis-Hathor worship from the pastoral stage of society, see W. Robertson Smith, Religion of the Semites,2 pp. 296 sqq.
Herodotus, ii. 41.
Herodotus, ii. 41, with A. Wiedemann's commentary; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 19; E. A. Wallis Budge, Osiris and the Egyptian Resurrection (London and New York, 1911), i. 8. In his commentary on the passage of Herodotus Prof. Wiedemann observes (p. 188) that “the Egyptian name of the Isis-cow is ḥes-t and is one of the few cases in which the name of the sacred animal coincides with that of the deity.”
Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 184; Solinus, xxxii. 18; Ammianus Marcellinus, xxii. 14. 7. The spring or well in which he was drowned was perhaps the one from which his drinking-water was procured; he might not drink the water of the Nile (Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 5).
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 56.
G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne4 (Paris, 1886), p. 31. Compare Duncker, Geschichte des Alterthums,5 i. 56. It has been conjectured that the period of twenty-five years was determined by astronomical considerations, that being a period which harmonises the phases of the moon with the days of the Egyptian year. See L. Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie (Berlin, 1825-1826), i. 182 sq.; F. K. Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie, i. (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 180 sq.
G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa, Third Edition (London, 1878), i. 59 sq.
E. de Pruyssenaere, Reisen und Forschungen im Gebiete des Weissen und Blauen Nil (Gotha, 1877), pp. 22 sq. (Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 50).
Ernst Marno, Reisen im Gebiete des Blauen und Weissen Nil (Vienna, 1874), p. 343. The name Nyeledit is explained by the writer to mean “very great and mighty.” It is probably equivalent to Nyalich, which Dr. C. G. Seligmann gives as a synonym for Dengdit, the high god of the Dinka. According to Dr. Seligmann, Nyalich is the locative of a word meaning “above” and, literally translated, signifies, “in the above.” See C. G. Seligmann, s.v. “Dinka,” in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, edited by J. Hastings, D.D., vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 707. The Sakalava of Ampasimene, in Madagascar, are said to worship a black bull which is kept in a sacred enclosure in the island of Nosy Be. On the death of the sacred bull another is substituted for it. See A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), pp. 247 sq., quoting J. Carol, Chez les Hova (Paris, 1898), pp. 418 sq. But as the Sakalava are not, so far as I know, mainly or exclusively a pastoral people, this example of bull-worship does not strictly belong to the class illustrated in the text.
See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 19 sqq.
See above, vol. i. pp 292-294.
Athenaeus, xiii. 51, p. 587 a; Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 204. Compare W. Robertson Smith, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, article “Sacrifice,” vol. xxi. p. 135.
Varro, De agri cultura, i. 2. 19 sq.: “hoc nomine etiam Athenis in arcem non inigi, praeterquam semel ad necessarium sacrificium.” By semel Varro probably means once a year.
The force of this inference is greatly weakened, if not destroyed, by a fact which I had overlooked when I wrote this book originally. A goat was sacrificed to Brauronian Artemis at her festival called the Brauronia (Hesychius, s.v. Βραυρωνίοις; compare Im. Bekker's Anecdota Graeca, p. 445, lines 6 sqq.). As the Brauronian Artemis had a sanctuary on the Acropolis of Athens (Pausanias, i. 23. 7), it seems probable that the goat sacrificed once a year on the Acropolis was sacrificed to her and not to Athena. (Note to Second Edition of The Golden Bough.)
Herodotus, ii. 42.
It is worth noting that Hippolytus, with whom Virbius was identified, is said to have dedicated horses to Aesculapius, who had raised him from the dead (Pausanias, ii. 27. 4).
Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 178, 179, 220; Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae, 97; Polybius, xii. 4 b. The sacrifice is referred to by Julian, Orat. v. p. 176 d (p. 228 ed. F. C. Hertlein). It is the subject of a valuable essay by W. Mannhardt, whose conclusions I summarise in the text. See W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen (Strasburg, 1884), pp. 156-201.
Ovid, Fasti, iv. 731 sqq., compare 629 sqq.; Propertius, v. 1. 19 sq.
The Huzuls of the Carpathians attribute a special virtue to a horse's head. They think that fastened on a pole and set up in a garden it protects the cabbages from caterpillars. See R. F. Kaindl, Die Huzulen (Wienna, 1894), p. 102. At the close of the rice-harvest the Garos of Assam celebrate a festival in which the effigy of a horse plays an important part. When the festival is over, the body of the horse is thrown into a stream, but the head is preserved for another year. See Note at the end of the volume.
Above, pp. 9sq.
Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.
Above, vol. i. pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 sq., 301.
Livy, ii. 5.
Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 130, 131.
Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 560 (vol. ii. pp. 259-261); Ch. Michel, Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques (Brussels, 1900), No. 434, pp. 323 sq.; P. Cauer, Delectus Inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum memorabilium2 (Leipsic, 1883), No. 177, pp. 117 sq. As to Alectrona or Alectryona, daughter of the Sun, see Diodorus Siculus, v. 65. 5.
Festus, s.v. “October equus,” p. 181 ed. C. O. Müller. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 315.
G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in West-afrika,” Zeitschrift für Erdkunde zu Berlin, xii. (1877) pp. 415 sq.
Rev. W. Ellis, History of Madagascar (London, preface dated 1838), i. 402 sq.
Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 939 (vol. ii. p. 803).
Pausanias, viii. 37. 7.
W. Mannhardt, Mythologische Forschungen (Strasburg, 1884), p. 179.
W. Mannhardt, Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme (Berlin, 1875), p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case.
M. Praetorius, Deliciae Prussicae oder Preussische Schaubuhne, im wörtlichen Auszüge aus dem Manuscript herausgegeben von Dr. William Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 60-64; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte (Berlin, 1877), pp. 249 sqq. Mathaeus Praetorius, the author to whom we owe the account in the text, compiled a detailed description of old Lithuanian manners and customs in the latter part of the seventeenth century at the village of Niebudzen, of which he was Protestant pastor. The work, which seems to have occupied him for many years and to have been finished about 1698, exists in manuscript but has never been published in full. Only excerpts from it have been printed by Dr. W. Pierson. Praetorius was born at Memel about 1635 and died in 1707. In the later years of his life he incurred a good deal of odium by joining the Catholic Church.
A. Bezzenberger, Litauische Forschungen (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89.
Simon Grunau, Preussischer Chronik, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 91.
J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 108.
On iron as a charm against spirits, see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 232 sqq.
Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) p. 54.
Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent. See Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) p. 50.
Von Haxthausen, Studien über die innern Zustände, das Volksleben und insbesondere die ländliche Einrichtungen Russlands, i. 448 sq.
J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 37.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 204, 206.
“Native Stories from Santa Cruz and Reef Islands,” translated by the Rev. W. O'Ferrall, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxiv. (1904) p. 230.
Glaumont, “La culture de l'igname et du taro en Nouvelle-Calédonie,” L'Anthropologie, viii. (1897) pp. 43-45.
G. A. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland Boeroe,” p. 26 (Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen vol. xxxviii., Batavia, 1875).
P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, vii. (1863) p. 127.
N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van Bolaang Mongondou,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xi. (1867) pp. 369 sq.
J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” Tiidschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) pp. 671 sq.
See above, vol. i. pp. 184 sqq.
A. W. Nieuwenhuis, In Centraal Borneo (Leyden, 1900), i. 156; id., Quer durch Borneo (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 117 sq. In the latter passage “ist jeder” is a misprint for “isst jeder”; the Dutch original is “eet ieder.”
H. Harkness, Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills (London, 1832), pp. 56 sq.
Ch. E. Gover, The Folk-songs of Southern India (London, 1872), pp. 105 sqq.; “Coorg Folklore,” Folk-lore Journal, vii. (1889) pp. 302 sqq.
Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, N.S., v. (1871) pp. 91 sqq.
From notes sent to me by my friend Mr. W. Crooke.
Major J. Biddulph, Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh (Calcutta, 1880), p. 103.
E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” Revue de l'histoire des Religions, xxiv. (1891) pp. 272-274.
S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger (London, 1859), pp. 287 sq. Mr. Taylor's information is repeated in West African Countries and Peoples, by J. Africanus B. Horton (London, 1868), pp. 180 sq.
J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 304-310, 340; compare id. pp. 435, 480, 768. The “slaves of the Earth-gods” are children whom women have obtained through prayers offered to Agbasia, the greatest of the Earth-gods. When such a child is born, it is regarded as the slave of Agbasia; and the mother dedicates it to the service of the god, as in similar circumstances Hannah dedicated Samuel to the Lord (1 Samuel i.). If the child is a girl, she is married to the priest's son; if it is a boy, he serves the priest until his mother has given birth to a girl whom she exchanges for the boy. See J. Spieth, op. cit. pp. 448-450. In all such cases the original idea probably was that the child has been begotten in the woman by the god and therefore belongs to him as to his father, in the literal sense of the word.
T. E. Bowdich, Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, New Edition (London, 1873), pp. 226-229.
A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (London, 1887), pp. 229 sq.
J. C. Reichenbach, “Etude sur le royaume d'Assinie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), vii.ème Série, xi. (1890) p. 349.
Ramseyer and Kühne, Four Years in Ashantee (London, 1875), pp. 147-151; E. Perregaux, Chez les Achanti (Neuchatel, 1906), pp. 158-160.
H. Ling Roth, Great Benin (Halifax, England, 1903), pp. 76 sq.
A. C. Hollis, The Nandi (Oxford, 1909), pp. 46 sq.
Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 428.
F. Speckmann, Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika (Hermannsburg, 1876), pp. 150 sq.
L. Grout, Zulu-land (Philadelphia, n.d.), p. 161.
(South African) Folk-lore Journal, i. (1879) p. 135; Rev. H. Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, Part iii. p. 389 note.
Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 216 sq. On the conception of the two fire-sticks as husband and wife, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 208 sqq.
J. Shooter, The Kafirs of Natal (London, 1857), p. 27; N. Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa (London, 1836), ii. 293; Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kafir (London, 1904), pp. 270, 271.
J. Macdonald, op. cit. p. 189.
Rev. J. Macdonald, Religion and Myth (London, 1893), pp. 136-138, from manuscript notes furnished by J. Sutton. Mr. Macdonald has described the custom more briefly in his Light in Africa, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 189.
N. Isaacs, Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa (London, 1836), ii. 292.
A. Delegorgue, Voyage dans l'Afrique Australe (Paris, 1847), ii. 237.
Above, vol. i. p. 240.
See The Dying God, pp. 36 sq. On the Zulu festival of first-fruits see also T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, Voyage d'Exploration au Nord-Est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne Espérance (Paris, 1843), pp. 308 sq.; G. Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Süd-Afrikas (Breslau, 1872), p. 143. Fritsch mentions that after executing a grotesque dance in the presence of the assembled multitude the king gives formal permission to eat of the new fruits by dashing a gourd or calabash to the ground. This ceremony of breaking the calabash is mentioned also by J. Shooter (Kafirs of Natal, p. 27), L. Grout (Zulu-land, p. 162), and Mr. Dudley Kidd (The Essential Kafir, p. 271). According to this last writer the calabash is filled with boiled specimens of the new fruits, and the king sprinkles the people with the cooked food, frequently spitting it out on them. Mr. Grout tells us (l.c.) that at the ceremony a bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and the people. In killing it the warriors must use nothing but their naked hands. The flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and burn the rest; the men may not taste it. See L. Grout, op. cit. p. 161. According to Shooter, two bulls are killed; the first is black, the second of another colour. The boys who eat the beef of the black bull may not drink till the next morning, else the king would be defeated in war or visited with some personal misfortune. See Shooter, op. cit. pp. 26 sq. According to another account the sacrifice of the bull, performed by the warriors of a particular regiment with their bare hands, takes place several weeks before the festival of first-fruits, and “the strength of the bull is supposed to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his health and strength.” See D. Leslie, Among the Zulus and Amatongas2 (Edinburgh, 1875), p. 91. For a general account of the Caffre festival of first-fruits, see Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kafir (London, 1904), pp. 270-272.
Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxv. (1905) pp. 311-313. It is very remarkable that among several Bantu tribes the cohabitation of husband and wife is enjoined as a religious or magical rite on a variety of solemn occasions, such as after the death of a son or daughter, the circumcision of a child, the first menstruation of a daughter, the occupation of a new house or of a new village, etc. For examples see C. W. Hobley, Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 58, 59, 60, 65, 67, 69, 74; H. A. Junod, “Les Conceptions physiologiques des Bantou Sud-Africains et leurs tabous,” Revue d'Ethnographie et de Sociologie, i. (1910) p. 148; Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), pp. 48, 144, 357, 363, 378, 428, etc.; id., “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) pp. 59, 61. Among the Baganda the act of stepping or leaping over a woman is regarded as equivalent to cohabitation with her, and is accepted as a ritual substitute for it (J. Roscoe, The Baganda, p. 357 note). The ideas on which this custom of ceremonial cohabitation is based are by no means clear.
Ch. Croonenberghs, S.J., “La fête de la Grande Danse dans le haut Zambeze,” Les Missions Catholiques, xiv. (1882) pp. 230-234; L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa (London, 1898), pp. 157 sq. The two accounts supplement each other. I have combined features from both in the text.
H. Tönjes, Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission (Berlin, 1911), pp. 200 sq.
V. Frič and P. Radin, “Contributions to the Study of the Bororo Indians,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxvi. (1906) p. 392.
The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida (London, 1792), pp. 507 sq.; A. Hodgson, Letters from North America (London, 1824), i. 131 sq.; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of the Creek Country,” in Collections of the Georgia Historical Society, iii. (Savannah, 1848) pp. 75-78; A. A. M'Gillivray, in H. R. Schoolcraft's Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 267 sq.; F. G. Speck, Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 112-131. The fullest descriptions are those of Adair and Speck. In the text I have chiefly followed Adair, our oldest authority. A similar ceremony was observed by the Cherokees. See the description (from an unpublished MS. of J. H. Payne, author of Home, Sweet Home) in “Observations on the Creek and Cherokee Indians, by William Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and supplementary notes by E. G. Squier,” Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 75. The Indians of Alabama also held a great festival at their harvest in July. They passed the day fasting, lit a new fire, purged themselves, and offered the first-fruits to their Manitoo: the ceremony ended with a religious dance. See Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales (Paris, 1768), ii. 54. These Indians of Alabama were probably either the Creeks or the Cherokees.
W. Bartram, Travels, p. 507.
So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided himself with a green bough.”
So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the people provided themselves with new household utensils.
B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76.
F. G. Speck, Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 86-89, 105-107, 112-131.
Th. Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvölker, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p. 42; A. S. Gatschet, A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, i. (Philadelphia, 1884) pp. 66 sqq.; Totemism and Exogamy, iii. 167.
C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1887), pp. 522 sq.
That is, the grand chief of the nation. All the chiefs of the Natchez were called Suns and were connected with the head chief or Great Sun, who bore on his breast an image of the sun and claimed to be descended from the luminary. See Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales (Paris, 1768), i. 42.
Le Page Du Pratz, History of Louisiana, or of the western parts of Virginia and Carolina, translated from the French, New Edition (London, 1774), pp. 338-341. See also J. R. Swanton, Indian Tribes of the Lower Mississippi Valley (Washington, 1911), pp. 110 sqq., where the passage of Du Pratz is translated in full from the original French. From Mr. Swanton's translation it appears that the English version of Du Pratz, which I have quoted in the text, is a good deal abridged. On the festival of first-fruits among the Natchez see also Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, vii. (Paris, 1781) p. 19; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), vi. 183; De Tonti, “Relation de la Louisiane et du Mississippi,” Recueil de Voyages au Nord, v. (Amsterdam, 1734) p. 122; Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” ibid. ix. 13 sq. (reprint of the account in the Lettres édifiantes cited above); Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales (Paris, 1768), i. 43. According to Charlevoix, Le Petit, and Bossu the festival fell in July. For Chateaubriand's description of the custom, see below, pp. 135 sqq.
C. Hill-Tout, The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné (London, 1907), pp. 168-170.
J. Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, p. 349 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April, 1900).
See above, p. 52.
See above, pp. 50, 53, 65, 66, 72, 81.
See above, pp. 59, 60, 63, 69sq., 71, 73, 75sq., 82.
Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1885), p. 430; P. Reichard, Deutsch-Ostafrika (Leipsic, 1892), p. 288; O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894), p. 162; M. Merker, Die Masai (Berlin, 1904), p. 33; M. Weiss, Die Völkerstämme im Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas (Berlin, 1910), p. 380. However, the motive which underlies the taboo appears to be a fear of injuring by sympathetic magic the cows from which the milk is drawn. See my essay “Folk-lore in the Old Testament,” in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor (Oxford, 1907), pp. 164 sq. According to Reichard the warriors may partake of honey both with meat and with milk. Thomson does not mention honey and speaks of a purgative only. The periods during which meat and milk are alternately consumed vary, according to Reichard, from twelve to fifteen days. We may conjecture, therefore, that two of them, making up a complete cycle, correspond to a lunar month, with reference to which the diet is perhaps determined.
M. W. H. Beech, The Suk, their Language and Folklore (Oxford, 1911), p. 9. In both cases the motive, as with the Masai, is probably a fear of injuring the cattle, and especially of causing the cows to loose their milk. This is confirmed by other taboos of the same sort observed by the Suk. Thus they think that to eat the flesh of a certain forest pig would cause the cattle of the eater to run dry, and that if a rich man ate fish his cows would give no milk. See M. W. H. Beech, op. cit. p. 10.
O. Baumann, Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894), p. 171.
Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 595; id., “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. xv. part i. (New York, 1901) pp. 122-124. For more details see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 208 sqq.
Rev. R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), p. 134.
Pausanias, v. 13. 3. We may assume, though Pausanias does not expressly say so, that persons who sacrificed to Telephus partook of the sacrifice.
Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 576 (vol. ii. p. 267); Ch. Michel, Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques, No. 723, p. 622. Further, no one who had suffered a domestic bereavement might enter the sanctuary for forty days. Hence the pollution of death was clearly deemed more virulent, or at all events more lasting, than the pollution of food.
Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5.
See above, pp. 51sq., 54, 58, 60sq., 64, 74.
See below, pp. 109sqq.
J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies, bk. v. ch. 24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). I have modernised the old translator's spelling. Acosta's authority, which he followed without acknowledgment, was an anonymous writer of about the middle of the sixteenth century, whose manuscript, written in Spanish, was found in the library of the Franciscan monastery at Mexico in 1856. A French translation of it has been published. See Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle-Espagne selon leurs traditions, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 149-154. Acosta's description is followed by A. de Herrera (General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii. 213-215).
The Satapatha-Brâhmana, translated by J. Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882) p. 51 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii.).
Op. cit. pp. 51 sq., with the translator's note.
See above, pp. 73sqq.
Above, p. 68, note 3.
H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States (London, 1875-1876), iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); F. S. Clavigero, History of Mexico, translated by Ch. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 309 sqq.; B. de Sahagun, Histoire générale des choses de la Nouvelle-Espagne, traduite et annotée par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon (Paris, 1880), pp. 203 sq.; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Bâle, 1867), p. 605; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique Centrale (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 531-534.
F. S. Clavigero, op. cit. i. 311; B. de Sahagun, op. cit. pp. 74, 156 sq.; J. G. Müller, op. cit. p. 606; H. H. Bancroft, op. cit. iii. 316; Brasseur de Bourbourg, op. cit. iii. 535. This festival took place on the last day of 16th month (which extended from 23rd December to 11th January). At another festival the Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it sacramentally as the bone of the god. See Sahagun, op. cit. p. 33.
Brasseur de Bourbourg, op. cit. iii. 539.
G. F. de Oviedo, Histoire du Nicaragua (Paris, 1840), p. 219. Oviedo's account is borrowed by A. de Herrera (General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens, iii. 301).
J. de Torquemada, Monarquia Indiana, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. pp. 259 sqq. (Madrid, 1723); Brasseur de Bourbourg, op. cit. iii. 510-512.
C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), ii. 166-171. When Mr. Lumholtz revisited the temple in 1898, the idol had disappeared. It has probably been since replaced by another. The custom of abstaining both from salt and from women as a mode of ceremonial purification is common among savage and barbarous peoples. See above, p. 75(as to the Yuchi Indians), and Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 224 sqq.
E. Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India (Madras, 1909), iv. 357 sq.
Graf Paul von Hoensbroech, 14 Jahre Jesuit (Leipsic, 1909-1910), i. 25 sq. The practice was officially sanctioned by a decree of the Inquisition, 29th July 1903.
See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 22.
Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last passage is, however, uncertain (“et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod manici † appelletur”).
Varro, De lingua latina, ix. 61; Arnobius, Adversus nationes, iii. 41; Macrobius, Saturn. i. 7. 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. C. O. Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the larvae; the other writers speak of the mother of the lares.
Macrobius, l.c.; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. C. O. Müller. The effigies hung up for the slaves were called pilae, not maniae. Pilae was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown to the bulls to gore in the arena. See Martial, Epigr. ii. 43. 5 sq.; Asconius, In Cornel. p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell.
The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to offer an image of it made of bread or wax. See Servius on Virgil, Aen. ii. 116; compare Pausanias, x. 18. 5. Poor people who could not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them (Suidas, s.v. βοῦς ἕβδομος; compare Hesychius, s.vv. βοῦς, ἕβδομος βοῦς). Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods (Proculus, quoted and emended by Chr. A. Lobeck, Aglaophamus, p. 1079). When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Persephone, they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar (Plutarch, Lucullus, 10). In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two to represent horns (Julius Pollux, i. 30 sq.). The Athenians are said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox (Zenobius, Cent. v. 22). And the Locrians, being at a loss for an ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it instead of the animal (Zenobius, Cent. v. 5). At the Athenian festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed (Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, p. 36, ed. Didot). We have seen above (p. 25) that the poorer Egyptians offered cakes of dough instead of pigs. The Cheremiss of Russia sometimes offer cakes in the shape of horses instead of the real animals. See P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” Globus, lviii. (1890) pp. 203 sq. Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl's parents were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. See Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 11 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).
See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 55 sqq.
L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (London, 1895), pp. 484-486.
W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 402.
M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der Galelareezen,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xlv. (1895) p. 539.
Rev. R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), p. 275.
J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde (Berlin, 1888), i. 9.
W. M. Donselaar, “Aanteekeningen over het eiland Saleijer,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, i. (1857) p. 290.
Le Comte C. N. de Cardi, “Ju-ju laws and customs in the Niger Delta,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxix. (1899) p. 58.
A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (London, 1894), p. 80.
Miss Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (London, 1897), p. 473.
S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger (London, 1859), pp. 250 sq.
J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxii. (1893) pp. 114 sq.; id., Myth and Religion (London, 1893), pp. 155 sq. (from MS. notes of Dr. Elmslie).
B. Schwarz, Kamerun (Leipsic, 1886), pp. 256 sq.; E. Reclus, Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, xiii. 68 sq.
J. Fraser, “The Aborigines of New South Wales,” Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales, xvi. (1882) p. 229; A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia (London, 1904), p. 467.
This I learned from Dr. Burton Brown (formerly of 3 Via Venti Setembri, Rome), who lived for some time among the Nagas.
Strabo, xvii. 1. 23, p. 803; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 18.
Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. p. 39, § 240 (December 1884).
Some examples of this vicarious use of images as substitutes for the sick have been given in an earlier part of this work. See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 62 sq.
N. Graafland, De Minahassa, (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 326.
P. J. Veth, Borneo's Wester-Afdeeling (Zaltbommel, 1854-56), ii. 309.
F. Grabowsky, “Ueber verschiedene weniger bekannte Opfer bei den Oloh Ngadju in Borneo,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, i. (1888) pp. 132 sq.
E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit Borneo's Westerafdeeling,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xlvii. (1897) pp. 60 sq. For another mode in which these same Dyaks seek to heal sickness by means of an image, see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 55 sq.
J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), p. 465.
H. Ling Roth, “Low's Natives of Borneo,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi. (1892) p. 117.
B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxviii. (1883) p. 531.
M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xlvi. (1902) pp. 413 sq.
N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, “Some Preliminary Results of an Expedition to the Malay Peninsula,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 416.
Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiii. (1890) p. 489.
A. Bastian, Die Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra (Berlin, 1883), p. 73.
Sarat Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet (London, 1902), p. 134.
Shway Yoe, The Burman (London, 1882), ii. 138.
Pallegoix, Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam (Paris, 1854), ii. 48 sq. Compare A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien (Leipsic and Jena, 1866-1871), iii. 293, 486; E. Young, The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe (Westminster, 1898), p. 121.
J. Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge (Paris, 1883), i. 176.
A. Woldt, “Die Kultus-Gegenstände der Golden und Giljaken,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, i. (1888) pp. 102 sq.
J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 1103 sq.; for a description of the effigies or “substitutes for a person” see id., vol. v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 920. Can the monkish and clerical tonsure have been originally designed in like manner to let out the evil influence through the top of the head?
T. Watters, “Some Corean Customs and Notions,” Folk-lore, vi. (1895) pp. 82 sq.
N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” Globus, lxvi. (1894) p. 54.
J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 502-506, 512, 513, 838, 848, 910. It is a disputed point in Ewe theology whether there are many spiritual mothers in heaven or only one. Some say that there are as many spiritual mothers as there are individual men and women; others doubt this and say that there is only one spiritual mother, and that she is the wife of God (Mawu) and gave birth to all spirits that live in heaven, both men and women.
G. Binetsch, “Beantwortung mehrerer Fragen über unser Ewe-Volk und seine Anschauungen,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxxviii. (1906) p. 37.
The Illustrated Missionary News, April 1st, 1891, pp. 59 sq.
As to the custom see Varro, De lingua latina, v. 45; Ovid, Fasti, v. 621 sqq.; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, Antiquit. Roman. i. 38; Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae, 32 and 86. For various explanations which have been proposed, see L. Preller, Römische Mythologie,3 ii. 134 sqq.; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 265 sqq.; Journal of Philology, xiv. (1885) p. 156 note; R. von Ihering, Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer, pp. 430-434; W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1899), pp. 111 sqq.; id., The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1911), pp. 54 sq., 321 sqq.; G. Wissowa, Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur römischen Religions- und Stadtgeschichte (Munich, 1904), pp. 211-229. The ceremony was observed on the fifteenth of May.
See The Golden Bough, Second Edition, iii. 107.
Plutarch, Quaest. Roman. 86.
See above, vol. i. pp. 231 sqq.
H. Tönjes, Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission (Berlin, 1911), p. 195.
Rev E. Casalis, The Basutos (London, 1861), pp. 251 sq.
Ibid. p. 252.
Ibid. pp. 252 sq. In the southern province of Ceylon “the threshers behave as if they were in a temple of the gods when they put the corn into the bags.” See C. J. R. Le Mesurier, “Customs and Superstitions connected with the Cultivation of Rice in the Southern Province of Ceylon,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, N.S. xvii. (1885), p. 371.
L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa (London, 1898), p. 173.
G. McCall Theal, Records of South-Eastern Africa, vii. (1901) p. 397.
“Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas, Muembas, Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” Zeitschrift für allgemeine Erdkünde (Berlin), vi. (1856) pp. 272, 273.
Rev. A. Hetherwick, “Some Animistic Beliefs among the Yaos of British Central Africa,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) pp. 94 sq.
Rev. A. Hetherwick, op. cit. pp. 91-94.
Dr. J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and Wiwa,” Journal of the African Society, vol. ix. No. 36 (July 1910), pp. 366 sq. Among the Winamwanga, as among the Yaos, the human soul or spirit is called muzimu (op. cit. p. 363).
C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1911), pp. 294 sq.
C. W. Hobley, Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 66, 85 sq.
Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 428.
Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, lx. (1888) p. 57. The account is extracted from the letter of a Catholic priest, himself a Dinka. The name of God, according to him, is Den-dit, meaning “Great Rain.” The form of the name agrees closely, and the interpretation of it agrees exactly, with the results of Dr. C. G. Seligmann's independent enquiries, according to which the name of the Dinka God is Dengdit, “Great Rain,” the word for rain being deng. See Dr. C. G. Seligmann, in Dr. J. Hastings' Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, s.v. “Dinka,” vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911) p. 707.
“Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba (Afrique centrale), notes communiquées par les missionnaires de Vérone,” Les Missions Catholiques, xiv. (1882) p. 459. As to the Nubas and their pontiff see further Stanislas Carceri, “Djebel-Nouba,” Les Missions Catholiques, xv. (1883) pp. 448-452.
A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, Up the Niger (London, 1892), pp. 141 sq.
Ch. Partridge, Cross River Natives (London, 1905), pp. 266 sq.
J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 795 sq.
J. Spieth, op. cit. p. 344. As to the goddess Mawu Sodza, see ibid. pp. 424 sq.
H. Klose, Togo unter deutscher Flagge (Berlin, 1899), p. 504.
L. Conradt, “Das Hinterland der deutschen Kolonie Togo,” Petermanns Mittheilungen, xlii. (1896) p. 18.
G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 346.
J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.
A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, ii. (Leipsic, 1866), p. 105.
A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), p. 97.
E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), p. 91.
Major A. Playfair, The Garos (London, 1909), p. 94.
E. T. Dalton, op. cit. p. 198; (Sir) H. H. Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary (Calcutta, 1891-1892), ii. 104.
Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., Religion and Customs of the Uraons (Calcutta, 1906), p. 137 (Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. i. No. 9).
North Indian Notes and Queries, i. 57, No. 428, quoting Moorcroft and Trebeck, Travels in the Himalayan Provinces, i. 317 sq.
E. T. Atkinson, The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 825. As to Bhumiya see further W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 105-107, who observes (pp. 106 sq.): “To illustrate the close connection between this worship of Bhûmiya as the soil godling with that of the sainted dead, it may be noted that in some places the shrine of Bhûmiya is identified with the Jathera, which is the ancestral mound, sacred to the common ancestor of the village or tribe.”
Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” Asiatic Researches, iv. (London, 1807) pp. 56 sq.
Panjab Notes and Queries, i. p. 60, § 502 (February 1884).
Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey, iii. Draft Articles on Forest Tribes (Allahabad, 1907) p. 45.
Op. cit. iii. 73.
Op. cit. v. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 66.
Op. cit. vii. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 102.
The practice is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the highroads twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure the crops (Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. 28). The purpose of the Indian custom may be to ward off evil influences from the field, as Mr. W. Crooke suggests (Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India, ii. 305, “This forms a sacred circle which repels evil influence from the crop”). Compare The Magic Art and Evolution of Kings, i. 113 sq.
D. C. J. Ibbetson, Outlines of Panjab Ethnography (Calcutta, 1883), p. 119.
The Satapatha Brâhmana, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i. (Oxford, 1882), pp. 369-373 (Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii.).
(Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900), pp. 425 sq.
Rev. G. Whitehead, “Notes on the Chins of Burma,” Indian Antiquary, xxxvi. (1907) p. 207.
A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” Anthropos, ii. (1907) pp. 627-629.
Ch. Dallet, Histoire de l'Eglise de Corée (Paris, 1874), i. p. xxiv.
Fr. Junghuhn, Die Battaländer auf Sumatra (Berlin, 1847), ii. 312.
Spenser St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East2 (London, 1863), i. 191.
B. F. Matthes, Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861, p. 5 (Verzameling van Berigten betreffende de Bijbelverspreiding, Nos. 96-99).
N. Graafland, De Minahassa (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 165.
J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), p. 107.
Riedel, op. cit. pp. 281, 296 sq.
Fr. Valentyn, Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 10.
C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,” Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 801.
Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiii. (1890) p. 482.
C. Semper, Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner (Würzburg, 1869), p. 56.
F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindano,” Petermanns Mittheilungen, xxxvii. (1891) p. 111.
Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss's Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 434-436.
Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or Sacred Stone Enclosure, of Wainimala, Fiji,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xiv. (1885) p. 27.
J. E. Erskine, Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western Pacific (London, 1853), p. 252.
G. Turner, Samoa (London, 1884), pp. 318 sq.
Rev. R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), pp. 132 sq.
C. M. Woodford, A Naturalist among the Head-hunters, being an Account of Three Visits to the Solomon Islands (London, 1890), pp. 26-28.
Rev. R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians, p. 138.
Horatio Hale, United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and Philology (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 97.
The malái is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house, or chief's grave, where public ceremonies are principally held” (W. Mariner, Tonga Islands, Vocabulary).
The mataboole is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles” (ibid.).
W. Mariner, Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands, Second Edition (London, 1818), ii. 78, 196-203. As to the divine chief Tooitonga see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, p. 21.
Ch. Wilkes,. Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 133.
G. Turner, Samoa, pp. 70 sq.
W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, Second Edition (London, 1832-1836), i. 350.
D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, Journal of Voyages and Travels (London, 1831), i. 284.
Geiseler, Die Oster-Insel (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.
E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 110; R. Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, Second Edition (London, 1870), pp. 165 sq.; Old New Zealand, by a Pakeha Maori (London, 1884), pp. 103 sq.
Chr. Hartknoch, Alt und neues Preussen (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684), p. 161; id., Dissertationes historicae de variis rebus Prussicis, p. 163 (appended to his edition of P. de Dusburg's Chronicon Prussiae, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1679). Compare W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.
See above, vol. i. pp. 53 sqq.
Plutarch, Theseus, 6.
Hyginus, Fabulae, 130.
Festus, s.v. “Sacrima,” p. 319, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, Nat. Hist. xviii. 8.
Varro, De lingua Latina, vi. 16, ed. C. O. Müller.
James Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, p. 345 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, May, 1900).
C. Hill Tout, “Report on the Ethnology of the Okanaken of British Columbia,” Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute, xli. (1911) p. 132.
Brasseur de Bourbourg, Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de l'Amérique-Centrale (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 566.
Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, i. (Paris and Lyons, 1826) p. 386.
Above, pp. 77sqq.
Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy, Paris, 1870).
See The Dying God, pp. 9 sqq.
James Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), p. 133.
Alfred Simson, Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador (London, 1887), p. 168; id., in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vii. (1878) p. 503.
A. Thevet, Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement nommée Amerique (Antwerp, 1558), p. 55; id., La Cosmographie Universelle (Paris, 1575), ii. pp. 929, [963], 940 [974]; J. Lerius, Historia Navigationis in Brasiliam, quae et America dicitur (1586), pp. 126 sq.
Rochefort, Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles, Seconde Edition (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 465.
C. Cuny, “De Libreville au Cameroun,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), vii. Série, xvii. (1896) p. 342.
R. Southey, History of Brazil, ii. (London, 1817) p. 373; id., iii. (London, 1819) p. 164.
P. Lozano, Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco (Cordova, 1733), p. 90.
M. Dobrizhoffer, Historia de Abiponibus (Vienna, 1784), i. 289 sq.
J. Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, p. 348 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April, 1900).
W. H. I. Bleek and C. L. Lloyd, Specimens of Bushman Folklore (London, 1911), pp. 271-275.
A. Bertrand, The Kingdom of the Barotsi, Upper Zambezia (London, 1899), p. 277, quoting the description given by the French missionary M. Coillard.
Theophilus Hahn, Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi (London, 1881), p. 106.
W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd, Specimens of Bushman Folklore (London, 1911), p. 373.
Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.
Sir Harry Johnston, The Uganda Protectorate, Second Edition (London, 1904), ii. 787.
Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 174; id., in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 282.
Rev. H. Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, p. 438, note 16.
O. Baumann, Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete (Berlin, 1891), p. 128.
Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa (London, 1897), p. 438; J. Buchanan, The Shire Highlands, p. 138.
M. W. H. Beech, The Suk, their Language and Folklore (Oxford, 1911), p. 11.
J. Shooter, The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country (London, 1857), p. 399.
A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa (London, 1890), p. 99.
M. Merker, Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga (Gotha, 1902), p. 38 (Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 138).
Rev. H. Callaway, Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus (Natal and London, 1868), p. 175 note.
Ovid, Metam. vii. 271 sqq. As to the supposed longevity of deer and crows, see L. Stephani, in Compte Rendu de la Commission Archéologique (St. Petersburg), 1863, pp. 140 sq., and my note on Pausanias, viii. 10. 10.
Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 119.
Porphyry, De Abstinentia, ii. 48: οἱ γοῦν ζώων μαντικῶν ψυχὰς δέξασθαι βουλόμενοι εἰς ἑαυτούς, τὰ κυριώτατα μόρια καταπιόντες, οἷον καρδίας κοράκων ἢ ἀσπαλάκων ἢ ἱεράκων, ἔχουσι παριοῦσαν τὴν ψυχὴν καὶ χρηματίζουσαν ὡς θεὸν καὶ εἰσιοῦσαν εἰς αὐτοὺς ἄμα τῇ ἐνθέσει τῇ τοῦ σώματος. Pliny also mentions the custom of eating the heart of a mole, raw and palpitating, as a means of acquiring skill in divination (Nat. Hist. xxx. 19).
Spenser St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East, Second Edition (London, 1863), i. 186, 206.
W. H. Furness, Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters (Philadelphia, 1902), p. 71; compare id., pp. 166 sq.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 511-513.
Rev. J. Batchelor, op. cit. p. 337.
W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), i. 279.
Bossu, Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales (Paris, 1768), i. 112.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States, ii. (Philadelphia, 1853) pp. 79 sq.
J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), pp. 10, 262.
James Chalmers, Pioneering in New Guinea (London, 1887), p. 166.
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiv. (1895) p. 179.
E. T. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta, 1872), p. 33.
Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, N.S., viii. (1886) p. 307.
J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 sq. Compare Mrs. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (London, 1898), i. 79.
Mrs. S. S. Allison, “Account of the Similkameen Indians of British Columbia,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxi. (1892) p. 313.
P. E. Müller on Saxo Grammaticus, Historia Danica (Copenhagen, 1839-1858), vol. ii. p. 60.
Die Edda, übersetzt von K. Simrock8 (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 180, 309.
Pliny, Hist. Natur. x. 137, xxix. 72.
Philostratus, Vita Apollonii, i. 20, iii. 9.
Saxo Grammaticus, Historia Danica, ed. P. E. Müller (Copenhagen, 1839-1858), i. 193 sq.
P. E. Müller, note in his edition of Saxo Grammaticus, vol. ii. p. 146.
A. Wuttke, Der deutsche Volksaberglaube2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 110, § 153; J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 230, § 1658.
Grimm, Kinder- und Hausmärchen, No. 17; id., Deutsche Sagen2 (Berlin, 1865-1866), No. 132 (vol. i. pp. 174-176); A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 154; A. Waldau, Böhmisches Märchenbuch (Prague, 1860), pp. 13 sqq.; Von Alpenburg, Mythen und Sagen Tirols (Zurich, 1857), pp. 302 sqq.; W. von Schulenburg, Wendische Volkssagen und Gebräuche aus dem Spreewald (Leipsic, 1880), p. 96; P. Sébillot, Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1882), ii. 224; W. Grant Stewart, The Popular Superstitions and Festive Amusements of the Highlanders of Scotland, New Edition (London, 1851), pp. 53, 56; J. F. Campbell, Popular Tales of the West Highlands, New Edition (Paisley and London, 1890), No. 47, vol. ii. pp. 377 sqq.; E. Prym und A. Socin, Syrische Sagen und Maerchen (Göttingen, 1881), pp. 150 sq. On the serpent in relation to the acquisition by men of the language of animals, see further my article, “The Language of Animals,” The Archaeological Review, i. (1888) pp. 166 sqq. Sometimes serpents have been thought to impart a knowledge of the language of animals voluntarily by licking the ears of the seer. See Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, i. 9. 11 sq.; Porphyry, De abstinentia, iii. 4.
A. Leared, Morocco and the Moors (London, 1876), p. 281.
M. Quedenfelt, “Aberglaube und halb-religiöse Bruderschaft bei den Marokkanarn,” Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1886, p. 682 (bound up with the Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xviii. 1886).
H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk (Leipsic, 1885), p. 218.
Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), vi. 8.
P. J. Veth, “De leer der Signatuur,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, vii. (1894) pp. 140 sq.
R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the For Tribe of Central Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xiii. (1884-1886) p. 218.
Rev. J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of the South African Tribes,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xx. (1891) p. 116; id., Light in Africa (London, 1890), p. 212. Compare Rev. E. Casalis, The Basutos (London, 1861), pp. 257 sq.; Dudley Kidd, The Essential Kafir (London, 1904), p. 309.
Rev. J. Macdonald, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xx. (1891) p. 138; id., Light in Africa, p. 220.
H. Schinz, Deutsch Südwest-Afrika (Oldenburg and Leipsic, preface dated 1891), p. 320.
J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxii. (1893) p. 111. Compare J. Buchanan, The Shire Highlands, p. 138; Sir H. H. Johnston, British Central Africa (London, 1897), p. 438.
A. C. Hollis, The Nandi (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.
Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.
Rev. J. L. Wilson, Western Africa (London, 1856), pp. 167 sq.
A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (London, 1890), pp. 99 sq.
A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (London, 1894), p. 69.
A. Caulin, Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia (1779), p. 98.
A. de Herrera, General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. J. Stevens (London, 1725-1726), vi. 187.
F. de Castelnau, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.
James Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), p. 135.
Rev. J. Roscoe, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 129 sq.; id., “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 45.
E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 328.
E. Clement, “Ethnographical Notes on the Western Australian Aborigines,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xvi. (1904) p. 8.
O. Opigez, “Aperçu général sur la Nouvelle-Calédonie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), vii. Série, vii. (1886) p. 433.
A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia (London, 1904), p. 753.
A. W. Howitt, op. cit. p. 752.
S. Gason, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiv. (1895) p. 172.
Rev. W. Ridley, Kamilaroi (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.
Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xi. (Lyons, 1838-1839) p. 258.
J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 sq.
A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 201.
N. Adriani en A. C. Kruijt, “Van Posso naar Mori,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xliv. (1900) p. 162.
F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” Mittheilungen der Wiener Geograph. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 154; id., Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen (Gotha, 1882), p. 32 (Petermann's Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 67).
Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss's Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 131.
L. Magyar, Reisen in Süd-Afrika in den Jahren 1849-1857 (Buda-Pesth and Leipsic, 1859), pp. 273-276.
Rev. J. Shooter, The Kafirs of Natal (London, 1857), p. 216.
Rev. H. Callaway, Nursery Tales, Traditions and Histories of the Zulus (Natal and London, 1868), p. 163 note.
A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 414, compare p. 312; Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 301.
A. C. Haddon, op. cit. p. 420; Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 301 sq.
S. J. Hickson, A Naturalist in North Celebes (London, 1889), p. 216.
R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 352. Compare ibid. p. 173; W. Ellis, Polynesian Researches, Second Edition (London, 1831-1836), i. 358; J. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du Monde et à la recherche de la Pérouse sur la corvette Astrolabe (Paris, 1832-1833), ii. 547; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 108.
A. C. Kruyt, “Het koppensnellen der Toradja's van Midden-Celebes, en zijne Beteekenis,” Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afdeeling Letterkunde, Vierde Reeks, iii. (Amsterdam, 1899) p. 166.
The Spectator, No. 316, March 3, 1712; Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. lxvii.
Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1896), p. 56.
For examples of the blood-covenant see H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (London, 1887). The custom is particularly common in Africa.
Rev. J. H. Bernau, Missionary Labours in British Guiana (London, 1847), pp. 57 sq.; R Schomburgk, Reisen in Britisch-Guiana (Leipsic, 1847-1848), ii. 497.
A. C. Hollis, The Nandi (Oxford, 1909), p. 27.
A. G. Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (London, 1906), pp. 180, 181 sq.
Mrs. Leslie Milne, Shans at Home (London, 1910), p. 192.
The Kukis of north-eastern India believe that the ghost of an animal as well as of a man will haunt its slayer and drive him mad unless he performs a ceremony called ai. For example, a man who has killed a tiger must dress himself up as a woman, put flints into the tiger's mouth, and eat eggs himself, after which he makes a speech to the tiger and gives it three cuts over the head with a sword. During this performance the principal performer must keep perfectly grave. Should he accidentally laugh, he says, “The porcupine laughed,” referring to a real porcupine which he carries in his arms for the purpose. See Lieut.-Colonel J. Shakespeare, “The Kuki-Lushai Clans,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxix. (1909) pp. 380 sq.
J. Dumont D'Urville, Voyage autour du Monde et à la recherche de la Pérouse (Paris, 1832-1833), iii. 305.
Vincenzo Dorsa, La Tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore (Cosenza, 1884), p. 138.
F. de Castelnau, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 382.
Some of the evidence has already been cited by me in Psyche's Task, pp. 56-58.
A. R. Wallace, Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, Second Edition (London, 1889), ch. xvii. pp. 346 sq.
R. Southey, History of Brazil, iii. (London, 1819) p. 722.
R. Southey, op. cit. iii. 204.
A. de Herrera, The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 45.
A. Reich und F. Stegelmann, “Bei den Indianern des Urubamba und des Envira,” Globus, lxxxiii. (1903) p. 137. On similar custom practised by the American Indians see further De la Borde, Relation de l'Origine, Mœurs, Coustumes, Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes Sauvages, p. 37 (forming part of the Recueil de divers Voyages faits en Afrique et en l'Amerique, Paris, 1684); J. F. Lafitau, Mœurs des Sauvages Ameriquains (Paris, 1724), ii. 444-446; A. N. Cabeça de Vaca, Relation et Naufrages (Paris, 1837), p. 109 (in Ternaux Compans' Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux pour servir à l'Histoire de la Découverte de l'Amérique); R. Southey, History of Brazil, i. (Second Edition, London, 1822), Supplemental Notes, p. xxxvi.; F. de Castelnau, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud (Paris, 1850-1851), iv. 380; J. G. Müller, Geschichte der amerikanischen Urreligionen (Bâle, 1867), pp. 289 sq.; H. A. Coudreau, La France Équinoxiale (Paris, 1887), ii. 173; Theodor Koch, “Die Anthropophagie der südamerikanischen Indianer,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xii. (1899) pp. 78-110; Th. Koch-Grünberg, Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 152. Some Indians of Guiana rubbed their limbs with water in which the ashes of their dead were mingled. See A. Biet, Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l'Isle de Cayenne (Paris, 1664), p. 392.
Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae, x. 18; Valerius Maximus, iv. 6. 5.
C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1911), p. 55.
See above, p. 154sqq.
Rev. E. Casalis, The Basutos, (London, 1861), pp. 256 sq.
E. Holub, Sieben Jahre in Süd Afrika (Vienna, 1881), ii. 361.
See above, p. 148.
J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, etc., of South African Tribes,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xx. (1891) p. 133. The Barolong, a Bechuana tribe, observe a custom of this sort. See W. Joest, “Bei den Barolong,” Das Ausland, 16th June 1884, p. 464.
Col. Maclean, A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs (Cape Town, 1866), p. 82.
Father Porte, “Les reminiscences d'un missionnaire du Basutoland,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxviii. (1896) p. 149.
Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood (London, 1906), p. 70, compare p. 43.
Lieut. H. Pope-Hennessy, “Notes on the Jukos and other Tribes of the Middle Benue,” Anthropological Reviews and Miscellanea, p. (30); appended to Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxx. (1900).
Rev. H. Callaway, Religious System of the Amazulu, pp. 380-382.
Col. Maclean, A Compendium of Kafir Laws and Customs (Cape Town, 1866), pp. 83 sq.
Du Tertre, Histoire generale des Isles de S. Christophe, de la Guadeloupe, de la Martinique et autres dans l'Amerique (Paris, 1654), pp. 417 sq.; id., Histoire generale des Antilles (Paris, 1667-1671), ii. 377; Rochefort, Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles2 (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 556.
R. Brough Smith, Aborigines of Victoria (Melbourne and London, 1878), i. p. xxix., ii. 313; A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia (London, 1904), pp. 367 sqq.
Rev. W. Ridley, Kamilaroi (Sydney, 1875), p. 160.
A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia (London, 1904), pp. 467, 468.
J. Chalmers and W. W. Gill, Work and Adventure in New Guinea (London, 1885), pp. 130, 265, 308; J. G. F. Riedel, De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua (The Hague, 1886), p. 308; Rev. J. Sibree, The Great African Island (London, 1880), p. 241. Other or the same peoples sometimes drink the juices of the decaying bodies of their kinsfolk, doubtless for a similar reason. See Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, vi. (Cambridge, 1906) p. 159; J. Chalmers and W. Gill, op. cit. pp. 27, 265; Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 139; J. G. F. Riedel, op. cit. p. 267; A. Bastian, Indonesien, ii. (Berlin, 1885) p. 95; id., Die Völker des Ostlichen Asien, v. (Jena, 1869) p. 91; P. J. Veth, Borneo's Westerafdeeling (Zaltbommel, 1854-1856), ii. 270; J. Jacobs, Eenigen Tijd onder de Baliers (Batavia, 1883), p. 53.
Rev. J. L. Wilson, Western Africa (London, 1856), p. 394.
Mgr. Le Roy, “Les Pygmées,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxix. (1897) p. 210.
“Mourning for the Dead among the Digger Indians,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, iii. (1874) p. 530.
E. H. Man, Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, p. 66.
Jerome Becker, La Vie en Afrique (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 366.
Th. Koch-Grünberg, Zwei Jahre unter den Indianern (Berlin, 1909-1910), ii. 153.
T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, Voyage d'Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance (Paris, 1842), pp. 349 sq.
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1899), pp. 204 sq. Men of other totem clans also partake of their totems sacramentally at these Intichiuma ceremonies (Spencer and Gillen, op. cit. pp. 202-206). As to the Intichiuma ceremonies, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 85 sqq. Another Central Australian mode of communicating qualities by external application is seen in the custom of beating boys on the calves of their legs with the leg-bone of an eagle-hawk; strength is supposed to pass thereby from the bone into the boy's leg. See Spencer and Gillen, op. cit. p. 472; Report on the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia, Part iv. (London and Melbourne, 1896), p. 180.
Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l'Origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions, publié par D. Charnay (Paris, 1903), pp. 171-173; J. de Acosta, Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880), ii. 364-367; E. Seler, Altmexikanische Studien, ii. (Berlin, 1899), pp. 43 sq. (Veröffentlichungen aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde).
Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood (London, 1906), pp. 12 sq.
Dudley Kidd, op. cit. pp. 20 sq.
On the custom of eating a god, see also a paper by Felix Liebrecht, “Der aufgegessene Gott,” Zur Volkskunde (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 436-439; and especially W. R. Smith, article “Sacrifice,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ninth Edition, vol. xxi. pp. 137 sq. On wine as the blood of a god, see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 248 sqq.
Cicero, De natura deorum, iii. 16. 41.
This does not refer to the Californian peninsula, which is an arid and treeless wilderness of rock and sand.
Father Geronimo Boscana, “Chinigchinich; a historical account of the origin, customs, and traditions of the Indians at the missionary establishment of St. Juan Capistrano, Alta California,” appended to Alfred Robinson's Life in California (New York, 1846), pp. 291 sq.; H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, iii. 168. The mission station of San Juan Capistrano is described by R. H. Dana (Two Years before the Mast, chaps. xviii. and xxiv.). A favourable picture of the missions is drawn by H. von Langsdorf (Reise um die Welt, Frankfort, 1812, ii. pp. 134 sqq.), by Duflos de Mofras (“Fragment d'un Voyage en Californie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), ii. Série, xix. (1843) pp. 9-13), and by a writer (H. H.) in The Century Magazine, May, 1883, pp. 2-18. But the severe discipline of the Spanish monks is noticed by other travellers. We are told that the Indians laboured during the day in the fields to support their Spanish masters, were driven to church twice or thrice a day to hear service in a language which they did not understand, and at night were shut up in crowded and comfortless barracks, without windows and without beds. When the monks desired to make new proselytes, or rather to capture new slaves, they called in the aid of the soldiery, who attacked the Indian villages by night, lassoed the fugitives, and dragged them back at their horses' tails to slavery in the missions. See O. von Kotzebue, Reise um die Welt (Weimar, 1830), ii. 42 sqq.; F. W. Beechey, Narrative of a Voyage to the Pacific and Beering's Strait (London, 1831), ii. chap. i.; A. Schabelski, “Voyage aux colonies russes de l'Amérique,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), ii. Série, iv. (1835) pp. 216-218. A poet has described with prosaic accuracy the pastoral crook by which these good shepherds brought back their strayed lambs to the spiritual fold:—
“Six horses sprang across the level ground
As six dragoons in open order dashed;
Above their heads the lassos circled round,
In every eye a pious fervour flashed;
They charged the camp, and in one moment more
They lassoed six and reconverted four.”
(Bret Harte, Friar Pedro's Ride.)
In the verses inscribed The Angelus, heard at the Mission Dolores, 1868, and beginning
“Bells of the Past, whose long-forgotten music
Still fills the wide expanse,”
the same poet shews that he is not insensible to the poetical side of those old Spanish missions, which have long passed away.
G. Turner, Samoa (London, 1884), p. 21. Compare id., pp. 26, 61.
Herodotus, ii. 42. The custom has been already referred to above, p. 41.
Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Alterthums,2 i. 2 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1909), p. 73 § 180. Compare Sir J. G. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians (London, 1878), iii. 1 sqq.
Above, p. 36.
Above, p. 170; vol. i. p. 285.
The Italmens of Kamtchatka, at the close of the fishing season, used to make the figure of a wolf out of grass. This figure they carefully kept the whole year, believing that it wedded with their maidens and prevented them from giving birth to twins; for twins were esteemed a great misfortune. See G. W. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327 sq. According to Chr. Hartknoch (Dissertat. histor. de variis rebus Prussicis, p. 163; Alt- und neues Preussen, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684, p. 161) the image of the old Prussian god Curcho was annually renewed. But see W. Mannhardt, Die Korndämonen (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.
See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. ii. pp. 70 sq.
T. J. Hutchinson, Impressions of Western Africa (London, 1858), pp. 196 sq. The writer does not expressly state that a serpent is killed annually, but his statement implies it.
Dr. Tautain, “Notes sur les croyances et pratiques religieuses des Banmanas,” Revue d'Ethnographie, iii. (1885) p. 397. Compare Totemism and Exogamy, ii. 543 sq.
Varro in Priscian, x. 32, vol. i. p. 524, ed. Keil; Pliny, Nat. Hist. vii. 14. Pliny's statement is to be corrected by Varro's.
When I wrote The Golden Bough originally I said that in these three cases “the animal slain probably is, or once was, a totem.” But this seems to me less probable now than it did then. In regard to the Californian custom in particular, there appears to be no good evidence that within the area now occupied by the United States totemism was practised by any tribes to the west of the Rocky Mountains. See H. Hale, United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 199; George Gibbs, in Contributions to North American Ethnology (Washington, 1877), i. 184; S. Powers, Tribes of California (Washington, 1877), p. 5; A. S. Gatschet, The Klamath Indians of South-western Oregon (Washington, 1890), vol. i. p. cvi. “California and Oregon seem never to have had any gentes or phratries” (A. S. Gatschet in a letter to me, dated November 5th, 1888). Beyond the very doubtful case cited in the text, I know of no evidence that totemism exists in Fernando Po.
Frank H. Cushing, “My Adventures in Zuñi,” The Century Illustrated Monthly Magazine, May 1883, pp. 45 sq.
Mr. Cushing, indeed, while he admits that the ancestors of the Zuni may have believed in transmigration, says, “Their belief, to-day, however, relative to the future life is spiritualistic.” But the expressions in the text seem to leave no room for doubting that the transmigration into turtles is a living article of Zuni faith.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iv. 86. On the totem clans of the Moquis, see J. G. Bourke, Snake-Dance of the Moquis of Arizona (London, 1884), pp. 116 sq., 334 sqq.
For this information I am indebted to the kindness of the late Captain J. G. Bourke, 3rd Cavalry, U.S. Army, author of the work mentioned in the preceding note. In his letter Captain Bourke gave a list of fourteen totem clans of Zuni, which he received on the 20th of May 1881 from Pedro Dino (?), Governor of Zuni.
It should be observed, however, that Mr. Cushing omits to say whether or not the persons who performed the ceremony described by him had the turtle for their totem. If they had not, the ceremony need not have had anything to do with totemism.
See Adonis, Attis, Osiris, Second Edition, pp. 301-318.
Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuñi Indians,” Twenty-Third Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology (Washington, 1904), pp. 148-162.
B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens (Yokohama), Heft xxii. p. 45.
We are told that the Aino have gods for almost every conceivable object, and that the word kamui “has various shades of meaning, which vary if used before or after another word, and according to the object to which it is applied.” “When the term kamui is applied to good objects, it expresses the quality of usefulness, beneficence, or of being exalted or divine. When applied to supposed evil gods, it indicates that which is most to be feared and dreaded. When applied to devils, reptiles, and evil diseases, it signifies what is most hateful, abominable, and repulsive. When applied as a prefix to animals, fish or fowl, it represents the greatest or fiercest, or the most useful for food or clothing. When applied to persons, it is sometimes expressive of goodness, but more often is a mere title of respect and reverence.” See the Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu of Japan (London, 1892), pp. 245-251; id., The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 581 sq. Thus the Aino kamui appears to mean nearly the same as the Dacotan wakan, as to which see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, p. 225, note.
W. Martin Wood, “The Hairy Men of Yesso,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S., iv. (1866) p. 36.
J. J. Rein, Japan (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 446.
H. von Siebold, Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso (Berlin, 1881), p. 26.
Miss Isabella L. Bird, Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (new edition, 1885), p. 275.
W. Martin Wood, l.c.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, p. 471.
Miss I. L. Bird, op. cit. p. 269.
B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 4 (reprinted from Mittheilungen d. deutsch. Gesell. b. S. und S. Ostasiens, Yokohama).
B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 45; W. Joest, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1882, p. 188.
W. Martin Wood, l.c.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 476 sq. As to the inao see below, p. 186, note.
Miss I. L. Bird, op. cit. p. 277.
B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 15; H. von Siebold, op. cit. p. 26; W. Martin Wood, l.c.; J. J. Rein, Japan, i. 447; Von Brandt, “The Ainos and Japanese,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, iii. (1874) p. 134; Miss Bird, op. cit. pp. 275, 276; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 495 sq.
B. Scheube, Die Ainos, pp. 15, 16; Von Brandt, l.c.; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 352-354, 504 sq.
B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 16.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 8-10. E. Reclus (Nouvelle Géographie Universelle, vii. 755) mentions a (Japanese?) legend which attributes the hairiness of the Ainos to the suckling of their first ancestor by a bear. But in the absence of other evidence this is no proof of totemism.
B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 483-485. Mr. Batchelor formerly doubted or denied that the Aino women suckle the bear cubs (The Ainu of Japan, p. 173); but since then he has repeatedly seen them do it. Once, while he was preaching, a cub was being passed round among all the young women present and suckled by each in turn.
J. J. Rein, Japan (Leipsic, 1881-1886), i. 447.
B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” p. 45; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 485 sq.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 486-496. The killing of the bear is described somewhat differently by Miss I. L. Bird (Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, New Edition, 1885, pp. 276 sq.), but she did not witness the ceremony. She tells us that at Usu, on Volcano Bay, when the bear is being killed, the Aino shout, “We kill you, O bear! Come back soon into an Aino.” According to Dr. Siebold, a very respectable authority, the bear's own heart is frequently offered to the dead beast to assure him that he is still in life (Ethnologische Studien über die Aino auf der Insel Yesso, p. 26). This, however, is denied by Dr. Scheube, who says that the heart is eaten (“Baerencultus,” p. 50 note). The custom may vary in different places.
B. Scheube, “Der Baerencultus und die Baerenfeste der Ainos,” Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft b. S. und S. Ostasiens (Yokohama), Heft xxii. pp. 46 sqq.
B. Scheube, “Baerencultus,” etc., p. 46; id., Die Ainos, p. 15; Miss I. L. Bird, op. cit. pp. 273 sq. As to these whittled wands (inao), which are so conspicuous about the Aino huts, see the Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 89-95. He remarks (p. 92): “I have often insisted both in my lectures and also in my writings that the Ainu do not worship their inao, but that they make them as offerings to the deities, and set them up as signs showing reverence towards them. This, I must now remark, is true but in part, for while some of the ordinary or less important kinds are not worshipped, there are several others which are. Those not worshipped may almost always be regarded as offerings and charms pure and simple, while those which are worshipped must generally be regarded as messengers sent to the higher deities.” On the whole Mr. Batchelor would describe the inao as fetishes of various degrees of power. See further P. Labbé, Un bagne Russe, l'Isle de Sakhaline (Paris, 1903), pp. 194 sq., who compares the use of these whittled sticks to the use of holy candles among Roman Catholics. In Borneo the search for camphor is attended by many superstitions; among other things, when the searchers have found a tree which promises to yield much camphor “they plant near their hut a stake, whereof the outer surface has been cut into curled shavings and tufts down the sides and at the top” (W. H. Furness, Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters, Philadelphia, 1902, p. 168). According to some ancient authorities, the old Italians worshipped peeled sticks as gods or as the images of gods; however, the statement seems no better than an etymological guess to explain the word delubrum. See Festus, s.v. “Delubrum,” p. 73, ed. C. O. Müller; Servius on Virgil, Aen. ii. 225.
“Ieso-Ki, ou description de l'île d'Iesso, avec une notice sur la révolte de Samsay-in, composée par l'interprète Kannemon,” printed in Malte-Brun's Annales des Voyages, xxiv. (Paris, 1814) p. 154.
P. Labbé, Un Bagne Russe, l'Isle de Sakhaline (Paris, 1903), pp. 227, 232-258. The Gilyaks of Saghalien similarly keep and sacrifice bears; but the ceremonies are simpler, and they treat the animals with less respect than the Aino. See P. Labbé, op. cit. pp. 261-267.
They inhabit the banks of the lower Amoor and the north of Saghalien. See E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (London, 1861), p. 389.
“Notes on the River Amur and the Adjacent Districts,” translated from the Russian, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxviii. (1858) p. 396.
Compare the custom of pinching a frog before cutting off his head; see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 86. In Japan sorceresses bury a dog in the earth, tease him, then cut off his head and put it in a box to be used in magic. See A. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika (Berlin, 1878), i. 475 note, who adds “wie im ostindischen Archipelago die Schutzseele gereizt wird.” He probably refers to the Batta Pang-hulu-balang. See H. von Rosenberg, Der Malayische Archipel (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 59 sq.; W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift, xii. (1885) pp. 478 sq.; J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane-en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland Sumatra,” in Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. (1886) Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2, p. 306; Van Dijk, in Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxviii. (1895) pp. 307 sq.
W. Joest, in B. Scheube, Die Ainos, p. 17; J. Deniker, “Les Ghiliaks d'après les derniers renseignements,” Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. (1883) pp. 307 sq. (on the authority of Mr. Seeland); Internationales Archiv für Ethnologie, i. (1888) p. 102 (on the authority of Captain Jacobsen); Archiv für Anthropologie, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (abstract of a Russian work on the Gilyaks by Dr. Seland or Seeland). What exactly is meant by “dancing as bears” (“tanzen beide Geschlechter Reigentänze, wie Bären,” Joest, l.c.) does not appear.
L. von Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande (St. Petersburg, 1891), iii. 696-731.
L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) pp. 260-274.
E. G. Ravenstein, The Russians on the Amur (London, 1861), pp. 379 sq.; T. W. Atkinson, Travels in the Regions of the Upper and Lower Amoor (London, 1860), pp. 482 sq.
E. H. Fraser, “The Fish-skin Tartars,” Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year 1891-1892, New Series, xxvi. 36-39. L. von Schrenck describes a bear-feast which he witnessed in 1855 among the Oltscha (Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande, iii. 723-728). The Oltscha are probably the same as the Orotchis.
The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, ii. 59 sqq.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 492, 493, 495, 496.
Op. cit. p. 482. Mr. Batchelor says “totem gods.”
Op. cit. pp. 580 sqq.
See above, pp. 188sq.
This account of the attitude of the Gilyaks to the bear, and of their reasons for holding the festival, is the one given by Mr. Leo Sternberg. See his articles, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) pp. 273 sq., 456-458. He speaks of the bear as a minor deity (“Er selbst ist ja eine Gottheit, wenn auch eine kleine”). Mr. Sternberg and Mr. Batchelor, two of the best-informed writers on the subject, agree in denying that the slaughter of the bear at the festival is a sacrifice to the gods. See L. Sternberg, op. cit. p. 457; Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, p. 482. As to the belief of the Gilyaks in evil spirits, which menace and destroy the life of man, see L. Sternberg, op. cit. pp. 460 sqq.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, pp. 410-415.
Rev. J. Batchelor, op. cit. pp. 432 sq.
Rev. J. Batchelor, op. cit. p. 438.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore, p. 479.
Rev. J. Batchelor, op. cit. pp. 481, 482.
L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) p. 272.
E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883), p. 350.
J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 261.
Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, vol. i. (Philadelphia, 1819) pp. 247 sq.
J. J. M. de Groot, The Religious System of China, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 157 sq.
John Campbell, Travels in South Africa, being a Narrative of a Second Journey in the Interior of that Country (London, 1822), ii. 34.
L. Sternberg, “Die Religion der Giljaken,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, viii. (1905) p. 248.
I. Petroff, Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska, p. 145.
Above, p. 141.
A. C. Haddon, “The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 393; id., Head-hunters (London, 1901), p. 133; Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 166.
Miss Alice C. Fletcher, The Import of the Totem, a Study from the Omaha Tribe, p. 6 (paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1897).
James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia,” p. 356 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April 1900).
K. von den Steinen, Unter den Naturvölkern Zentral-Brasiliens (Berlin, 1894), pp. 352 sq., 512. The Chambioa Indians of Central Brazil kept birds of the same species in captivity and used their brilliant feathers to cover enormous head-dresses or masks, some six feet high, which were worn by dancers in certain mystic dances. The masks were guarded in a special hut of each village, and no woman might see them under pain of death. See F. de Castelnau, Expédition dans les parties centrales de l'Amérique du Sud (Paris, 1850-1851), i. 436 sq., 440, 449-451.
However, many savages hunt the crocodile for the sake of its flesh, which some of them even regard as a delicacy. See H. von Wissmann, My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa, from the Congo to the Zambesi (London, 1891), p. 298; Ch. Partridge, Cross River Natives (London, 1905), p. 149; A. F. Mocler-Ferryman, Up the Niger (London, 1892), p. 222; Captain G. Burrows, The Land of the Pigmies (London, 1898), p. 247; R. E. Dennett, "Bavili Notes," Folk-lore, xvi. (1905) p. 399; J. Halkin, Quelques Peuplades du district de l'Uelé, I. Les Ababua (Liége, 1907), p. 33; H. Reynolds, “Notes on the Azandé Tribe of the Congo,” Journal of the African Society, No. xi. (April, 1904) p. 242; Brard, “Der Victoria-Nyansa,” Petermann's Mittheilungen, xliii. (1897) p. 78; A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), p. 209; G. Kurze, “Sitten und Gebräuche der Lengua-Indianer,” Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, xxiii. (1905) p. 30; W. Barbrooke Grubb, An unknown People in an unknown Land (London, 1911), pp. 82 sq.; Census of India, 1901, vol. xxvi., Travancore (Trivandrum, 1903), p. 353; Max Krieger, Neu-Guinea (Berlin, n.d.), p. 163; Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1904), p. 770; W. E. Roth, Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines (Brisbane and London, 1897), p. 94; N. W. Thomas, Natives of Australia (London, 1906), p. 106. In antiquity some of the Egyptians worshipped crocodiles, but others killed and ate them. See Herodotus, ii. 69; Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 50; Aelian, De natura animalium, x. 21.
Rev. J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, No. 10 (Singapore, 1883), p. 221. Compare C. Hupe, “Korte verhandeling over de godsdienst zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,” Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië, 1846, dl. iii. 160; S. Müller, Reizen en onderzoekingen in den Indischen Archipel (Amsterdam, 1857), i. 238; M. T. H. Perelaer, Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks (Zalt-Bommel, 1870), p. 7.
F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf Borneo,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, ii. (1892) pp. 119 sq.
H. Ling Roth, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo (London, 1896), i. 447 sq. Compare E. H. Gomes, Seventeen years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), pp. 56-60. Similarly the Kenyahs, Kayans, and Ibans, three tribes of Sarawak, will not kill crocodiles except in revenge for the death of one of their people. See C. Hose and W. MacDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 186, 190, 199, compare ib. pp. 193 sq.
J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xxxix. (1890) pp. 75 sq.
Nelson Annandale, “Primitive Beliefs and Customs of the Patani Fishermen,” Fasciculi Malayenses, Anthropology, i. (April, 1903) pp. 76-78.
Voyages of Captain James Cook round the World (London, 1809), ii. 316-319.
Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 336.
Rev. J. Roscoe, op. cit. pp. 318, 322, 335.
Fr. Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), pp. 510 sq.
A. Raffenel, Voyage dans l'Afrique occidentale (Paris, 1846), pp. 84 sq.
J. Sibree, The Great African Island (London, 1880), p. 269.
Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” Les Missions Catholiques, xii. (1880) p. 527; A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), pp. 283 sq.
W. Ellis, History of Madagascar (London, n.d.), i. 57 sq.
W. Marsden, History of Sumatra (London, 1811), p. 292.
J. L. van der Toorn, “Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche Bovenlanden,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, xxxix. (1890) pp. 74, 75 sq.
H. Ris, “De onderafdeeling Mandailing Oeloe en Pahantan en hare Bevolking,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indië, xlvi. (1896) pp. 472 sq.
G. G. Batten, Glimpses of the Eastern Archipelago (Singapore, 1894), p. 86.
Th. Shaw, “On the Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,” Asiatic Researches, Fourth Edition, iv. (London, 1807) p. 37.
Annales de l'Association de la Propagation de la Foi, v. (1831) pp. 363 sq.
J. Bricknell, The Natural History of North Carolina (Dublin, 1737), p. 368.
W. Bartram, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, etc. (London, 1792) pp. 258-261.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 273.
Rev. John Heckewelder, “An Account of the History, Manners, and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighbouring States,” Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philosophical Society, i. (Philadelphia, 1819) p. 245.
W. Keating, Narrative of an Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River (London, 1825), i. 127.
J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 294-296. Compare id., pp. 456-458; J. Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), pp. 237 sq.
Henry, Travels, pp. 176-179, quoted by J. Mooney, op. cit. pp. 457 sq.
C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, viii. (1895) p. 204.
H. Rehse, Kiziba, Land und Leute (Stuttgart, 1910), pp. 130 sq.
Fr. Boas, in Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, pp. 9 sq. (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1896).
Rev. J. Jetté, “On the Medicine-men of the Ten'a,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. (1907) p. 158.
J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 265.
T. de Pauly, Description Ethnographique des Peuples de la Russie (St. Petersburg, 1862), Peuples de la Sibérie Orientale, p. 7.
Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonaut. ii. 124.
“Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba,” Les Missions Catholiques, xiv. (1882) p. 458.
C. B. Klunzinger, Upper Egypt (London, 1878), pp. 402 sq.
Caulin, Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia, p. 96: “Reusan mucho matar qualquier animal no comestibile que no sea nocibo,” etc. Here reusan appears to be a misprint for recusan.
G. W. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 85, 280, 331.
Voyages au Nord (Amsterdam, 1727), viii. 41, 416; P. S. Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 64; J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 83.
A. Erman, Travels in Siberia (London, 1848), ii. 43. For the veneration of the polar bear by the Samoyedes, who nevertheless kill and eat it, see ibid. pp. 54 sq.
A. Bastian, Der Mensch in der Geschichte (Leipsic, 1860), iii. 26.
W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 88 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).
Max Buch, Die Wotjäken (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 139.
A. Featherman, Social History of the Races of Mankind, Fourth Division, Dravido-Turanians, etc. (London, 1891) p. 422.
J. Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 233 sq. The Lapps “have still an elaborate ceremony in hunting the bear. They pray and chant to his carcase, and for several days worship before eating it” (E. Rae, The White Sea Peninsula (London, 1881), p. 276).
Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), v. 173 sq.; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 172-181 (Paris, Michel Lévy, 1870).
Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, vi. (Paris, 1781) p. 171. L. H. Morgan states that the names of the Otawa totem clans had not been obtained (Ancient Society, London, 1877, p. 167). From the Lettres édifiantes, vi. 168-171, he might have learned the names of the Hare, Carp, and Bear clans, to which may be added the Gull clan, as I learn from an extract from The Canadian Journal (Toronto) for March 1858, quoted in The Academy, 27th September 1884, p. 203.
A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt, p. 117 (Middletown, 1820), p. 133 (Edinburgh, 1824).
De Smet, Western Missions and Missionaries (New York, 1863), p. 139.
A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, iii. (1874) p. 111.
Henry's Travels, pp. 143-145, quoted by J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900), pp. 446 sq.
A. Mackenzie, “Descriptive notes on certain implements, weapons, etc., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B.C.,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, ix. (1891) section ii. p. 58.
James Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, p. 347 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April 1900). The Thompson Indians used to be known as the Couteau or Knife Indians.
J. Teit, The Lillooet Indians (Leyden and New York, 1906), p. 279 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History); id., The Shuswap (Leyden and New York, 1909), pp. 602 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition).
Stephen Kay, Travels and Researches in Caffraria (London, 1833), p. 138.
L. Alberti, De Kaffers aan de Zuidkust van Afrika (Amsterdam, 1810), p. 95. Alberti's information is repeated by H. Lichtenstein (Reisen im südlichen Afrika, Berlin, 1811-1812, i. 412) and by Cowper Rose (Four Years in Southern Africa, London, 1829, p. 155). The burial of the trunk is also mentioned by Kay, l.c.
J. Shooter, The Kafirs of Natal (London, 1857), p. 215.
Fr. Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), p. 87.
Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 447.
Fr. Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), p. 785.
J. Becker, La Vie en Afrique (Paris and Brussels, 1887), ii. 298 sq., 305.
A. Bastian, Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 243.
A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, Up the Niger (London, 1892), p. 309.
Lieut. Herold, “Bericht betreffend religiöse Anschauungen und Gebräuche der deutschen Ewe-Neger,” Mittheilungen von Forschungsreisenden und Gelehrten aus den deutschen Schutzgebieten, v. Heft 4 (Berlin, 1892), p. 156.
H. Spieth, “Jagdgebräuche in Avatime,” Mitteilungen der geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, ix. (1890) pp. 18-20. Compare H. Klose, Togo unter deutscher Flagge (Berlin, 1899), pp. 145-147. The ceremonies observed after the slaughter of a wild buffalo are of the same general character with variations in detail.
Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 54; id., The Baganda (London, 1911), pp. 289, 448.
Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), pp. 288 sq. Another curious notion which the Baganda have about sheep is that they give health to cattle and prevent them from being struck by lightning. Hence a sheep is often herded with cows to serve as a sort of lightning-conductor. See J. Roscoe, op. cit. p. 421.
Rev. J. Roscoe, op. cit. pp. 423 sq. Further, “if a man's dog died in the house, his wife dared not touch it, because she feared its ghost; she would call her husband to take it away” (op. cit. p. 425).
W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), p. 66 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).
W. Jochelson, The Koryak (Leyden and New York, 1908), pp. 66-76 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vi., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).
Captain W. F. W. Owen, Narrative of Voyages to explore the Shores of Africa, Arabia, and Madagascar (London, 1833), i. 170.
Rev. R. H. Nassau, Fetichism in West Africa (London, 1904), p. 204.
A. Thevet, La Cosmographie Universelle (Paris, 1575), ii. 936 [970] sq.
A. d'Orbigny, Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 202.
E. F. im Thurn, Among the Indians of Guiana (London, 1883), p. 352.
G. B. Grinnell, Blackfoot Lodge Tales (London, 1893), p. 240.
A. Caulin, Historia Coro-graphica natural y evangelica dela Nueva Andalucia Guayana y Vertientes del Rio Orinoco (1779), p. 97.
J. Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p. 282.
J. Owen Dorsey, “Teton Folklore Notes,” Journal of American Folklore, ii. (1889) p. 134; id., “A Study of Siouan Cults,” Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1894), p. 479.
H. Mouhot, Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (London, 1864), i. 252; J. Moura, Le Royaume du Cambodge (Paris, 1883), i. 422.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 420.
J. G. Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien (Göttingen, 1751-1752), ii. 278.
L. von Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-lande, iii. 564.
W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources (London, 1870), p. 89; id., in The Yukon Territory (London, 1898), p. 89.
Fr. Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 92 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1890).
A. G. Morice, “Notes, archæological, industrial, and sociological, on the Western Dénés,” Transactions of the Canadian Institute, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.
A. G. Morice, Au pays de l'Ours Noir, chez les sauvages de la Colombie Britannique (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 71.
L. Hennepin, Description de la Louisiane (Paris, 1683), pp. 97 sq.
Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 24 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858). Nets are regarded by the Indians as living creatures who not only think and feel but also eat, speak, and marry wives. See F. Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 256 (pp. 178 sq. of the reprint, Librairie Tross, Paris, 1865); S. Hearne, Journey to the Northern Ocean (London, 1795), pp. 329 sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; ibid. 1639, p. 95; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), v. 225; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 140 sqq. The Hebrews sacrificed and burned incense to their nets (Habakkuk i. 16). In some of the mountain villages of Annam the people, who are great hunters, sacrifice fowls, rice, incense, and gilt paper to their nets at the festival of the New Year. See Le R. P. Cadière, “Coutumes populaires de la vallée du Nguôn-So'n,” Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient, ii. (Hanoi, 1902) p. 381. When a net has caught little or nothing, the Ewe negroes think that it must be hungry; so they call in the help of a priest, who commonly feeds the hungry net by sprinkling maize-flour and fish, moistened with palm oil, on its meshes. See G. Härtter, “Der Fischfang im Evheland,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xxxviii. (1906) p. 55.
Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 175, 178 (Paris, Michel Lévy Frères, 1870). They will not let the blood of beavers fall on the ground, or their luck in hunting them would be gone (Relations des Jésuites, 1633, p. 21). Compare the rule about not allowing the blood of kings to fall on the ground. See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 241 sqq.
L. Hennepin, Nouveau voyage d'un pais plus grand que l'Europe (Utrecht, 1698), pp. 141. sq.; Relations des Jésuites, 1636, p. 109; F. Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, p. 255 (p. 178 of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865). Not quite consistently the Canadian Indians used to kill every elan they could overtake in the chase, lest any should escape to warn their fellows (Sagard, l.c.).
A. de Herrera, General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 142.
Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339.
C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der Kekchí-Indianer,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, viii. (1895) pp. 195 sq.
J. Mooney, “Cherokee Theory and Practice of Medicine,” American Journal of Folk-lore, iii. (1890) pp. 45 sq.; id., “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1891), pp. 320 sq., 347; id., “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 263 sq.
J. G. Bourke, “Religion of the Apache Indians,” Folk-lore, ii. (1891) p. 438.
L. Hennepin, Description de la Louisiane (Paris, 1683), pp. 80 sq.
James Teit, The Thompson Indians of British Columbia, pp. 346 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April 1900).
James Teit, The Lillooet Indians (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 281 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).
Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 26 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).
Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” Report of the British Association for 1894, PP. 459 sq.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii. 230.
Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France (Paris, 1744), v. 443.
W. Bogaras, The Chuckchee (Leyden and New York, 1904-1909), p. 409 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. vii., Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History).
J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 389 sq.
J. A. Jacobsen, Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres (Berlin, 1896), p. 234.
A. C. Kruijt, “Een en ander aangaande het geestelijk en maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,” Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap, xli. (1897) pp. 4 sq.
W. Barbrooke Grubb, An Unknown People in an Unknown Land (London, 1911), pp. 125 sq.
L. M. Turner, “Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory,” Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1894), pp. 200 sq.
Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 595; id., “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) pp. 119 sqq. As to the antagonism which these Esquimaux suppose to exist between marine and terrestrial animals, see above, p. 84; and with regard to the taboos observed by these Esquimaux after the slaughter of sea-beasts, see Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 205 sqq.
D. Crantz, History of Greenland (London, 1767), i. 216.
E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899), pp. 379-393, 437. Compare A. Woldt, Captain Jacobsen's Reise an der Nordwestküste Americas 1881-1883 (Leipsic, 1884), pp. 289-291. In the text the ceremony has been described mainly as it was witnessed by Mr. E. W. Nelson at Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver, in December, 1879. As might have been expected, the ritual varies in details at different places.
Garcilasso de la Vega, Royal Commentaries of the Yncas, translated by C. R. Markham, First Part, bk. i. ch. 10, vol. i. pp. 49 sq. (Hakluyt Society, London, 1869-1871). Compare id., vol. ii. p. 148.
Fr. Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, pp. 61 sq. (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1890); id., Kwakiutl Texts, ii. pp. 303 sq., 305 sq., 307, 317 (Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, December, 1902).
Relations des Jésuites, 1667, p. 12 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).
F. Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, pp. 255 sqq. (pp. 178 sqq. of the reprint, Libraire Tross, Paris, 1865).
B. Hagen, Unter den Papuas (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 270.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), pp. 529 sq.
A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt (Middletown, 1820), p. 116.
M. J. Schleiden, Das Salz (Leipsic, 1875), p. 47. For this reference I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith.
Hugh Miller, Scenes and Legends of the North of Scotland, ch. xvii. pp. 256 sq. (Edinburgh, 1889).
M. Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels, iii. (London, 1809) p. 620.
W. Powell, Wanderings in a Wild Country (London, 1883), pp. 66 sq.
C. Lumholtz, Unknown Mexico (London, 1903), i. 403.
R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants, Second Edition (London, 1870), p. 200; A. S. Thomson, The Story of New Zealand (London, 1859), i. 202; E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xix. (1890) p. 109.
Rev. J. Roscoe, The Baganda (London, 1911), p. 395.
A. G. Morice, Au pays de l'Ours Noir (Paris and Lyons, 1897), p. 28.
Sir John Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation4 (London, 1882), p. 277, quoting Metlahkatlah, p. 96.
W. Dall, Alaska and its Resources (London, 1870), p. 413.
Fr. Boas, in “Ninth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada,” Report of the British Association for 1894, p. 461. Compare J. Teit, The Lillooet Indians (Leyden and New York, 1906), pp. 280 sq. (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History); C. Hill Tout, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxv. (1905) p. 140; id., The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné (London, 1907), pp. 170-172.
Fr. Boas, in Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, pp. 16 sq. (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1890).
Id., in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 51 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889).
Stephen Powers, Tribes of California (Washington, 1877), pp. 31 sq.
Alex. Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River (London, 1849), p. 97.
Ch. Wilkes, Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, New Edition (New York, 1851), iv. 324, v. 119, where it is said, “a dog must never be permitted to eat the heart of a salmon; and in order to prevent this, they cut the heart of the fish out before they sell it.”
H. C. St. John, “The Ainos,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, ii. (1873) p. 253; id., Notes and Sketches from the Wild Coasts of Nipon, pp. 27 sq. Similarly it is a rule with the Aino to bring the flesh of bears and other game into the house, not by the door, but by the window or the smoke-hole. See Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), p. 123; P. Labbé, Un Bagne Russe (Paris, 1903), pp. 255 sq.
Archiv für Anthropologie, xxvi. (1900) p. 796 (as to the Gilyak of the Amoor); J. Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankfort, 1673), pp. 242 sq.; C. Leemius, De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita, et religione pristina commentatio (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 503; Revue d'Ethnographie, ii. (1883) pp. 308 sq.; Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vii. (1878) p. 207; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” in Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 595; id., “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) p. 148; A. G. Morice, in Transactions of the Canadian Institute, iv. (1892-93) p. 108.
E. James, Expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains (London, 1823), i. 257.
D. G. Brinton, Myths of the New World2 (New York, 1876), p. 278.
W. H. Keating, Expedition to the Source of St. Peter's River (London, 1825), i. 452.
Fr. Boas, “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) p. 161.
A. d'Orbigny, Voyage dans l'Amérique Méridionale, iii. (Paris and Strasburg, 1844) p. 201. However, in this case a belief in the resurrection of the animals is not expressly affirmed, and the practice of burning the bones seems inconsistent with it.
E. J. Jessen, De Finnorum Lapponumque Norwegicorum religione pagana tractatus singularis, pp. 46 sq., 52 sq., 65 (bound with C. Leem's De Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione pristina commentatio, Copenhagen, 1767). Compare Leem's work, pp. 418-420, 428 sq.; J. Acerbi, Travels through Sweden, Finnland, and Lapland (London, 1802), ii. 302.
G. W. Steller, Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1774), p. 269; S. Krascheninnikow, Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka (Lemgo, 1766), p. 246.
See A. Erman, referred to above, p. 223; J. G. Gmelin, Reise durch Sibirien (Göttingen, 1751-1752), i. 274, ii. 182 sq., 214; H. Vambery, Das Türkenvolk (Leipsic, 1885), pp. 118 sq. When a fox, the sacred animal of the Conchucos in Peru, had been killed, its skin was stuffed and set up (A. Bastian, Die Culturländer des alten Amerika, i. 443). Compare the bouphonia, above, pp. 4sqq.
At the annual sacrifice of the White Dog, the Iroquois were careful to strangle the animal without shedding its blood or breaking its bones; the dog was afterwards burned (L. H. Morgan, League of the Iroquois, Rochester, 1851, p. 210). It is a rule with some of the Australian blacks that in killing the native bear they may not break his bones. They say that the native bear once stole all the water of the river, and that if they were to break his bones or take off his skin before roasting him, he would do so again (R. Brough Smyth, Aborigines of Victoria, i. 447 sqq.). Some of the Queensland aborigines believe that if the bones or skulls of dugong were not put away in a heap or otherwise preserved, no more dugong would be caught (W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin No. 5, Brisbane, 1903, p. 27). When the Tartars whom Carpini visited killed animals for eating, they might not break their bones but burned them with fire (Carpini, Historia Mongalorum (Paris, 1838), cap. iii. § i. 2, p. 620). North American Indians might not break the bones of the animals which they ate at feasts (Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, vi. 72). In the war feast held by Indian warriors after leaving home, a whole animal was cooked and had to be all eaten. No bone of it might be broken. After being stripped of the flesh the bones were hung on a tree (Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, London, 1830, p. 287). On St. Olaf's Day (29th July) the Karels of Finland kill a lamb, without using a knife, and roast it whole. None of its bones may be broken. The lamb has not been shorn since spring. Some of the flesh is placed in a corner of the room for the house-spirits, some is deposited on the field and beside the birch-trees which are destined to be used as May-trees next year (W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 160 sq., note). Some of the Esquimaux in skinning a deer are careful not to break a single bone, and they will not break the bones of deer while walrus are being hunted (Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), pp. 595 sq.). The Innuit (Esquimaux) of Point Barrow, Alaska, carefully preserve unbroken the bones of the seals which they have caught and return them to the sea, either leaving them in an ice-crack far out from the land or dropping them through a hole in the ice. By doing so they think they secure good fortune in the pursuit of seals (Report of the International Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska (Washington, 1885), p. 40). In this last custom the idea probably is that the bones will be reclothed with flesh and the seals come to life again. The Mosquito Indians of Central America carefully preserved the bones of deer and the shells of eggs, lest the deer or chickens should die or disappear (H. H. Bancroft, Native Races of the Pacific States, i. 741). In Syria at the present time people offer a sacrifice for a boy when he is seven days old, and they will not break a bone of the victim, “because they fear that if a bone of the sacrifice should be broken, the child's bones would be broken, too” (S. I. Curtiss, Primitive Semitic Religion To-day, Chicago, etc., 1902, p. 178). This last may be a later misinterpretation of the old custom. For West African cases of refusal to break the bones of sacrificial victims, see J. Spieth, Die Ewe-Stämme (Berlin, 1906), pp. 458, 466, 480, 527, 712, 796, 824. Amongst the Narrinyeri of South Australia, when an animal was being cut up, the bystanders used to leap and yell as often as a bone was broken, thinking that if they did not do so their own bones would rot within them (A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, p. 763).
Relations des Jésuites, 1634, p. 25 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858); A. Mackenzie, Voyages through the Continent of America (London, 1801), p. civ.; J. Dunn, History of the Oregon Territory (London, 1844), p. 99; F. Whymper, in Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, xxxviii. (1868) p. 228; id., in Transactions of the Ethnological Society, N.S., vii. (1869) p. 174; A. P. Reid, “Religious Belief of the Ojibois Indians,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, iii. (1874) p. 111; Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1888), p. 596; id., “The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, xv. (1901) p. 123; E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) pp. 438 sq. For more examples see above, pp. 225, 238sqq., 242sq., 246. After a meal the Indians of Costa Rica gather all the bones carefully and either burn them or put them out of reach of the dogs. See W. M. Gabb, On the Indian Tribes and Languages of Costa Rica (read before the American Philosophical Society, 20th Aug. 1875), p. 520 (Philadelphia, 1875). The custom of burning the bones to prevent the dogs getting them does not necessarily contradict the view suggested in the text. It may be a way of transmitting the bones to the spirit-land. The aborigines of Australia burn the bones of the animals which they eat, but for a different reason; they think that if an enemy got hold of the bones and burned them with charms, it would cause the death of the person who had eaten the animal (Native Tribes of South Australia, Adelaide, 1879, pp. 24, 196).
See Taboo and the Perils of the Soul, pp. 279 sqq.
A. de Herrera, General History of the vast Continent and Islands of America, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iv. 126.
Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia (London, 1899), p. 475.
For this suggestion I am indebted to a hint thrown out in conversation by my friend Professor G. F. Stout.
See The Dying God, p. 1.
The principle of the conservation of energy is clearly stated and illustrated by Balfour Stewart in his book The Conservation of Energy, Fourth Edition (London, 1877). The writer does not countenance the view that life is a form of energy distinct from and independent of physical and chemical forces; he regards a living being simply as a very delicately constructed machine in which the natural forces are in a state of unstable equilibrium. To avoid misapprehension it may be well to add that I do not pretend to argue either for or against the theory of life which appears to be implicitly adopted by the savage; my aim is simply to explain, not to justify or condemn, the mental attitude of primitive man towards these profound problems.
W. Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen (Berlin, 1858), pp. 57-74; id., Baumkultus, p. 116; C. L. Rochholz, Deutscher Glaube und Brauch (Berlin, 1867), i. 219 sqq.; J. Curtin, Myths and Folk-lore of Ireland (London, n.d.), pp. 45 sq.; E. Cosquin, Contes populaires de Lorraine (Paris, n.d.), ii. 25; E. S. Hartland, “The Physicians of Myddfai,” Archaeological Review, i. (1888) pp. 30 sq. In folk-tales, as in primitive custom, the blood is sometimes not allowed to fall on the ground. See E. Cosquin, l.c.
W. Mannhardt, Germanische Mythen, p. 66.
Jamblichus, Vita Pythag. 92, 135, 140; Porphyry, Vita Pythag. 28.
Pindar, Olymp. i. 37 sqq., with the Scholiast.
Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxviii. 34.
Plutarch, Isis et Osiris, 18. This is one of the sacred stories which the pious Herodotus (ii. 48) concealed and the pious Plutarch divulged.
Adam Hodgson, Letters from North America (London, 1824), i. 244.
J. Adair, History of the American Indians (London, 1775), pp. 137 sq. This writer, animated by a curious though not uncommon passion for discovering the ten lost tribes of Israel, imagined that he detected the missing Hebrews disguised under the red skins and beardless faces of the American Indians.
É. Petitot, Monographie des Dènè-Dindjie (Paris, 1867), pp. 77, 81 sq.; id., Traditions indiennes du Canada Nord-ouest (Paris, 1886), pp. 132 sqq., compare pp. 41, 76, 213, 264. The story is told in a briefer form, though without any reference to the custom, by another French missionary. See the letter of Mgr. Tache, in Annales de la Propagation de la Foi, xxiv. (1852) pp. 336 sq.
The first part of this suggestion is due to my friend W. Robertson Smith. See his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites2 (London, 1894), p. 380, note 1. The Faleshas, a Jewish sect of Abyssinia, after killing an animal for food, “carefully remove the vein from the thighs with its surrounding flesh.” See Halévy, “Travels in Abyssinia,” in Publications of the Society of Hebrew Literature, Second Series, vol. ii. p. 220. Caffre men will not eat the sinew of the thigh; “it is carefully cut out and sent to the principal boy at the kraal, who with his companions consider it as their right.” See Col. Maclean, Kafir Laws and Customs (Cape Town, 1866), p. 151. Gallas who pride themselves on their descent will not eat the flesh of the biceps; the reasons assigned for the custom are inconsistent and unsatisfactory. See Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1893), p. 154. When the Bushmen kill a hare, they cut out a sinew of the thigh and will not eat it, alleging as their reason that the hare was once a man, and that this particular sinew is still human flesh. See W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd. Specimens of Bushman Folklore (London, 1911), pp. xxxix., 60 sq., 63.
J. Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1891), p. 323. Compare id., “Myths of the Cherokee,” Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1900) pp. 267, 447. In the last of these passages the writer quotes Buttrick, Antiquities, p. 12, as follows: “The Indians never used to eat a certain sinew in the thigh.... Some say that if they eat of the sinew they will have cramp in it on attempting to run. It is said that once a woman had cramp in that sinew, and therefore none must eat it.”
See above, pp. 138sqq.
É. Aymonier, Notes sur le Laos (Saigon, 1885), p. 23.
E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), p. 504.
L. von Schrenck, Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande, iii. 546.
P. S. Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des Russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), iii. 70.
Rev. J. Macdonald, Light in Africa, Second Edition (London, 1890), p. 171.
J. Teit, The Thompson Indians cf British Columbia, p. 317 (The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of Natural History, April, 1900).
So among the Esquimaux of Bering Strait a girl at puberty is considered unclean. “A peculiar atmosphere is supposed to surround her at this time, and if a young man should come near enough for it to touch him it would render him visible to every animal he might hunt, so that his success as a hunter would be gone.” See E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 291.
P. Dobell, Travels in Kamtchatka and Siberia (London, 1830), i. 19.
Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” Third Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), pp. 289 sq.
J. G. Kohl, Kitschi-Gami (Bremen, 1859), ii. 251 sq.; Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France, v. 173; Chateaubriand, Voyage en Amérique, pp. 179 sq., 184.
For examples of the incident, see J. F. Bladé, Contes populaires recueillis en Agenais (Paris, 1874), pp. 12, 14; G. W. Dasent, Popular Tales from the Norse (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 133 sq. (“Shortshanks”); Aug. Schleicher, Litauische Märchen (Weimar, 1857), p. 58; Sepp, Altbayerischer Sagenschatz (Munich, 1876), p. 114; R. Köhler, on L. Gonzenbach's Sicilianische Märchen (Leipsic, 1870), ii. 230; Apollodorus, Bibliotheca, iii. 13. 3; Schol. on Apollonius Rhodius, Argonaut. i. 517; W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, p. 53; J. C. Poestion, Lappländische Märchen (Vienna, 1876), pp. 231 sq.; A. F. Chamberlain, in Eighth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 35 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1892); I. V. Zingerle, Kinder und Hausmärchen aus Tirol2 (Gera, 1870), No. 25, p. 127; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche (Leipsic, 1848), p. 342; S. Grundtvig, Dänische Volksmärchen, übersetzt von W. Leo (Leipsic, 1878), p. 289; A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen (Strasburg, 1882), pp. 405 sq., 409 sq.; A. und A. Schott, Walachische Maerchen (Stuttgart and Tübingen), No. 10, p. 142; Chr. Schneller, Märchen und Sagen aus Wälschtirol (Innsbruck, 1867), No. 39, pp. 116 sq.; G. Basile, Pentamerone, übertragen von F. Liebrecht (Breslau, 1846), i. 99; P. Sébillot, Contes Populaires de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1885), No. 11, p. 80; E. Cosquin, Contes Populaires de Lorraine (Paris, n.d.), i. p. 61; J. Haltrich, Deutsche Volksmärchen aus dem Sachsenlande in Siebenbürgen4 (Vienna and Hermannstadt, 1885), No. 24, pp. 104 sqq.; Grimm, Household Tales, No. 60. The incident often occurs in the type of tale analysed by Mr. E. S. Hartland in his Legend of Perseus (vol. i. pp. 12, 17, 18, etc.; vol. iii. pp. 6, 7, 8, etc.).
Fr. Boas, in Fifth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, p. 58 (separate reprint from the Report of the British Association for 1889); id., in Journal of American Folk-lore, i. (1888) p. 218.
See W. H. Dall, “Masks and Labrets,” Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1884), pp. 111 sq. Compare id., Alaska and its Resources (London, 1870), p. 425; Ivan Petroff, Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska, p. 176.
Ph. Paulitschke, Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die Geistige Cultur der Danâkil, Galla und Somâl (Berlin, 1896), p. 47.
Ph. Paulitschke, op. cit. p. 156; id., Ethnographie Nordost-Afrikas: die materielle Cultur, etc. (Berlin, 1893), p. 226.
J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 54, § 354.
L. Strackerjan, Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 94, § 381; E. Monseur, in Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, xxxi. (1895) pp. 297 sq.
J. V. Grohmann, op. cit. p. 81, § 576.
Homer, Od. iii. 332, 341.
Scholiast on Aristophanes, Plutus, 1110; Athenaeus, i. 28, p. 16 b; Paroemiographi Graeci, ed. Leutsch et Schneidewin, i. 415, No. 100.
See further H. Gaidoz, “Les Langues coupées,” Mélusine, iii. (1886-87) coll. 303-307; E. Monseur, loc. cit.
T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, Relation d'un Voyage d'Exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne-Espérance (Paris, 1842), pp. 562-564.
Rev. J. Roscoe, “Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 60. This custom appears not to be mentioned by the writer in his book The Baganda (London, 1911).
A. Oldfield, “On the Aborigines of Australia,” Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, N.S. iii. (1865) p. 287.
E. M. Curr, The Australian Race (Melbourne and London, 1886), i. 348, 381.
R. Southey, History of Brazil, vol. i. Second Edition (London, 1822), p. 231.
E. W. Nelson, “The Eskimo about Bering Strait,” Eighteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, part i. (Washington, 1899) p. 423.
Rev. S. Mateer, The Land of Charity (London, 1871), pp. 203 sq.
Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, “A Study of Siouan Cults,” Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (Washington, 1894), p. 420.
C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1911), p. 126.
J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 105 note.
G. A. Heinrich, Agrarische Sitten und Gebräuche unter den Sachsen Siebenbürgens (Hermannstadt, 1880), pp. 15 sq.
R. F. Kaindl, Die Huzulen (Vienna, 1894), pp. 79, 103; id., “Viehzucht und Viehzauber in den Ostkarpaten,” Globus, lxix. (1906) p. 387.
E. Krause, “Abergläubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin,” Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, xv. (1883) p. 93.
L. Decle, Three Years in Savage Africa (London, 1898), p. 160.
Vetter, “Aberglaube unter dem Jabim-Stamme in Kaiser-Wilhelmsland,” Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena, xii. (1893) pp. 95 sq.
E. Modigliani, Un Viaggio a Nías (Milan, 1890), p. 626.
W. Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (Westminster, 1896), ii. 303.
M. Merker, “Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga,” Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft No. 113 (Gotha, 1902), pp. 35 sq.
Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 320.
Geoponica, xiii. 5. According to the commentator, the field assigned to the mice is a neighbour's, but it may be a patch of waste ground on the farmer's own land. The charm is said to have been employed formerly in the neighbourhood of Paris (A. de Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France, Paris and Lyons, 1846, p. 383).
A. Meyrac, Traditions, Coutumes, Légendes et Contes des Ardennes (Charleville, 1890), p. 176.
American Journal of Folk-lore, xi. (1898) p. 161.
G. Maan, “Eenige mededeelingen omtrent de zeden en gewoonten der Toerateya ten opzichte van den rijstbouw,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xlvi. (1903) pp. 329 sq.
Rev. J. Batchelor, The Ainu and their Folk-lore (London, 1901), p. 509.
R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, N.S., viii. (1879) p. 125.
J. L. van Gennep, “Bijdrage tot de kennis van den Kangean-Archipel,” Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië, xlvi. (1896) p. 101.
C. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) pp. 198 sq.
J. V. Grohmann, Aberglauben und Gebräuche aus Böhmen und Mähren (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 60, § 405.
J. G. von Hahn, Albanesische Studien (Jena, 1854), Heft i. p. 157.
Lagarde, Reliquiae juris ecclesiastici antiquissimae, p. 135. For this passage I am indebted to my late friend W. Robertson Smith, who kindly translated it for me from the Syriac. It occurs in the Canons of Jacob of Edessa, of which a German translation has been published by C. Kayser (Die Canones Jacob's von Edessa übersetzt und erläutert, Leipsic, 1886; see pp. 25 sq.).
W. R. S. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People (London, 1872), p. 255.
Dudley Kidd, Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children (London, 1906), p. 292.
H. A. Junod, Les Ba-ronga (Neuchatel, 1898), pp. 419 sq. As to the rain-making ceremony among the Baronga, see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 267 sq.
J. Malalas, Chronographia, ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831), p. 264.
D. Comparetti, Vergil in the Middle Ages (London, 1895), p. 265. I have to thank Mr. J. D. May of Merton College, Oxford, for this and the following references to Comparetti's book.
D. Comparetti, op. cit. pp. 259, 293, 341.
E. Doutté, Magie et Religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers, 1908), p. 144.
Encyclopaedia Biblica, iv. (London, 1903) col. 4395.
Grégoire de Tours, Histoire Ecclésiastique des Francs, traduction de M. Guizot, Nouvelle Édition (Paris, 1874), viii. 33, vol. i. p. 514. For some stories of the same sort, see J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), pp. 306-308.
1 Samuel vi. 4-18. The passage in which the plague of mice is definitely described has been omitted in the existing Hebrew text, but is preserved in the Septuagint (1 Samuel v. 6, καὶ μέσον τῆς χώρας αὐτῆς ἀνεφύησαν μύες). See Dean Kirkpatrick's note on 1 Samuel v. 6 (Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges).
Numbers xxi. 6-9.
Homer, Iliad, i. 39, with the Scholia and the comment of Eustathius; Strabo, xiii. 1. 48 and 63; Aelian, Nat. Anim. xii. 5; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 39, p. 34, ed. Potter; Pausanias, x. 12. 5.
Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Pausanias, i. 24. 8.
Strabo, xiii. 1. 64; Eustathius, on Homer, Iliad, i. 39, p. 34; Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum,2 No. 609 (vol. ii. p. 386).
Strabo and Eustathius, ll.cc.
Professor W. Ridgeway has pointed out that the epithet Bassareus applied to Dionysus (Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium, 30) appears to be derived from bassara, “a fox.” See J. Tzetzes, Schol. on Lycophron, 771; W. Ridgeway, in The Classical Review, x. (1896) pp. 21 sqq.; S. Reinach, Cultes, Mythes, et Religions, ii. (Paris, 1906) pp. 106 sqq.
Pliny, Nat. Hist. x. 75; Pausanias, v. 14. 1, viii. 26. 7; Clement of Alexandria, Protrept. ii. 38, p. 33, ed. Potter.
Robigo or personified as Robigus. See Varro, Rerum rusticarum, i. 1. 6; id., De lingua latina, vi. 16; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 905 sqq.; Tertullian, De spectaculis, 5; Augustine, De civitate Dei, iv. 21; Lactantius, Divin. Instit. i. 20; L. Preller, Römische Mythologie3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 43 sqq.; W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1899), pp. 88 sqq.
Aristotle, Hist. Anim. vi. 37, p. 580 b 15 sqq.; Aelian, Nat. Anim. xvii. 41; W. Warde Fowler, in The Classical Review vi. (1892) p. 413. In Laos, a province of Siam, the ravages committed by rats are terrible. From time to time whole armies of these destructive rodents appear and march across the country in dense columns and serried ranks, devouring everything as they go, and leaving famine, with all its horrors, in their train. See Lieut.-Col. Tournier, Notice sur le Laos Français (Hanoi, 1900), pp. 104, 135. So in Burma, the rats multiply in some years to such an extent that they cause a famine by destroying whole crops and granaries. See Max and Bertha Ferrars, Burma (London, 1900), pp. 149 sq.
Polemo, cited by a scholiast on Homer, Iliad, i. 39 (ed. Im. Bekker). Compare Eustathius on Homer, Iliad, i. 39.
Aelian, Nat. Anim. xii. 5.
Aelian, l.c.
See above, p. 279.
E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, xxiv. (1891) p. 236.
Λύκειος or Λύκιος, Pausanias, i. 19. 3 (with my note), ii. 9. 7, ii. 19. 3, viii. 40. 5; Lucian, Anacharsis, 7; Im. Bekker, Anecdota Graeca (Berlin, 1814-1821), i. 277, lines 10 sq.
Pausanias, ii. 9. 7; Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.
Sophocles, Electra, 6.
Scholiast on Demosthenes, xxiv. 114, p. 736.
Pausanias, ii. 9. 7.
P. Einhorn, Reformatio gentis Letticae in Ducatu Curlandiae, reprinted in Scriptores rerum Livonicarum, vol. ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 621. The preface of Einhorn's work is dated 17th July 1636.
A. Biet, Voyage de la France Equinoxiale en l'Isle de Cayenne (Paris, 1664), p. 361.
J. Chaffanjon, L'Orénoque et le Caura (Paris, 1889), p. 203.
Levrault, “Rapport sur les provinces de Canélos et du Napo,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), Deuxième Série, xi. (1839) p. 75.
G. Osculati, Esplorazione delle regioni equatorali lungo il Napo ed il fiume delle Amazzoni (Milan, 1850), p. 114.
J. B. Ambrosetti, “Los Indios Caingua del alto Paraná (misiones),” Boletin del Instituto Geografico Argentino, xv. (Buenos Ayres, 1895) p. 740.
Ch. Wiener, Pérou et Bolivie (Paris, 1880), p. 369.
Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, Nouvelle Édition, viii. (Paris, 1781) pp. 335 sqq.
Fr. Coreal, Voyages aux Indes occidentales (Amsterdam, 1722), ii. 132.
H. R. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 215 sq.
H. R. Schoolcraft, op. cit. iii. 113.
Rev. J. L. Wilson, Western Africa (London, 1856), p. 210.
J. C. Reichenbach, “Étude sur le royaume d'Assinie,” Bulletin de la Société de Géographie (Paris), vii. Série, xi. (1890) pp. 322 sq.
D. Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa (London, 1857), p. 615.
Miss A. Werner, The Natives of British Central Africa (London, 1906), p. 64.
C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, The Great Plateau of Northern Rhodesia (London, 1911), p. 200.
Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, xxxvii. (1907) pp. 101 sq. Compare Major J. A. Meldon, “Notes on the Bahima of Ankole,” Journal of the African Society, No. 22 (January, 1907), p. 151.
M. Merker, Die Masai (Berlin, 1894), p. 202. The belief that the human dead are turned into serpents is common in Africa; and the practice of offering milk to the reptiles appears to be not infrequent. See Adonis, Attis, Osiris,2 pp. 71 sq.
J. Halkin, Quelques Peuplades du district de l'Uelé (Liége, 1907), p. 102; Notes Analytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du Musée du Congo, La Religion (Brussels, 1906), p. 162.
Father Courtois, “Scènes de la vie Cafre,” Les Missions Catholiques, xv. (1883) p. 593. For more evidence of similar beliefs in Africa, see Father Courtois, “À travers le haut Zambèze,” Les Missions Catholiques, xvi. (1884) p. 299 (souls of the dead in guinea-fowl); Father Lejeune, “Dans la forêt,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxvii. (1895) p. 248 (souls of the dead in apes, owls, etc.).
Father Abinal, “Croyances fabuleuses des Malgaches,” Les Missions Catholiques, xii. (1880) pp. 549-551. A somewhat different account of the Betsileo belief in the transmigration of souls is given by another authority. See G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 411. Compare A. van Gennep, Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar (Paris, 1904), pp. 272 sq., 283, 291.
Rev. J. Sibree, The Great African Island (London, 1880), p. 270.
“Das Volk der Tanala,” Globus, lxxxix. (1906) p. 362.
W. H. Furness, “The Ethnography of the Nagas of Eastern Assam,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxii. (1902) p. 463.
T. C. Hodson, The Naga Tribes of Manipur (London, 1911), p. 159.
(Sir) J. George Scott and J. P. Hardiman, Gazetteer of Upper Burma and the Shan States (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. i. p. 26.
Guerlach, “Chez les sauvages de la Cochinchine Orientale, Bahnar, Reungao, Sédang,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxvi. (1894) pp. 143 sq.
E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” Revue de l'histoire des Religions, xxiv. (1891) p. 267. Compare D. Grangeon, “Les Cham et leurs superstitions,” Les Missions Catholiques, xxviii. (1896) p. 46. According to the latter writer, white horses are specially set apart to serve as domiciles for these domestic deities. After its dedication such a horse is carefully tended and never mounted again.
F. Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” Mittheilungen der Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft, 1882, p. 164; id., Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen (Gotha, 1882), p. 29 (Petermanns Mittheilungen, Ergänzungsheft, No. 67).
L. de Freycinet, Voyage autour du Monde, ii. (Paris, 1829) pp. 595 sq.
K. Semper, Die Palau-Inseln im Stillen Ocean (Leipsic, 1873), pp. 87 sq., 193. These sacred animals were called kalids. A somewhat different account of the kalids of the Pelew Islanders is given by J. Kubary (“Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian's Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde, Leipsic, 1888, i. 5 sqq.).
W. D. Helderman, “De tijger en het bijgeloof der Bataks,” Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde, xxxiv. (1891) pp. 170-175. The account which this writer gives of the reception of a dead tiger by the Battas agrees with, and is probably the source of, Mr. Batten's account cited above (pp. 216 sq.).
C. Hose, “The Natives of Borneo,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxiii. (1894) p. 165. Compare A. W. Nieuwenhuis, In Centraal Borneo (Leyden, 1900), i. 148; id., Quer durch Borneo (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 105. According to the latter writer the Kayans or Bahaus in general abstain from the flesh both of deer and of grey apes, because they think that the souls of the dead may be in them.
Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, “The Relations between Men and Animals in Sarawak,” Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxxi. (1901) p. 193.
E. H. Gomes, Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo (London, 1911), p. 143.
F. S. A. de Clercq, “De West en Noordkust van Nederlandsch Nieuw-Guinea,” Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 635.
Max Krieger, Neu-Guinea (Berlin, n.d.), p. 404.
K. Vetter, Komm herüber und hilf uns! iii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 22. Compare id., in Nachrichten über Kaiser Wilhelms-Land, 1897, pp. 87 sq.; B. Hagen, Unter den Papuas (Wiesbaden, 1899), p. 225.
H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) p. 310.
R. Parkinson, “Die Berlinhafen Section, ein Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Neu-Guinea Küste,” Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie, xiii. (1900) p. 40.
Ch. Keysser, “Aus dem Leben der Kaileute,” in R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu-Guinea, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 150 sq.
Mr. Sleigh of Lifu, quoted by Prof. E. B. Tylor, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1898) p. 147.
R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891), pp. 179 sq.
R. H. Codrington, op. cit. p. 177.
R. H. Codrington, op. cit. p. 33. East Indian evidence of the belief in transmigration into animals is collected by G. A. Wilken (“Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen Archipel,” De Indische Gids, June 1884, pp. 988 sqq.), who argues that this belief supplies the link between ancestor-worship and totemism. Compare the same writer's article “Iets over de Papoewas van de Geelvinksbaai,” pp. 24 sqq. (separate reprint from Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Ned. Indië, 5e Volgreeks ii.). Wilken's view on this subject is favoured by Professor E. B. Tylor (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xxviii. (1898) pp. 146 sq.). See further, Totemism and Exogamy, iv. 45 sqq.
The Laws of Manu, ii. 201.
Id., v. 164.
Id., xi. 25.
Id., xii. 39-78.
Sir Monier Monier-Williams, Buddhism, Second Edition (London, 1890), pp. 111 sq. Full, if not always authentic, particulars of the Buddha's manifold transmigrations are contained in the Jatakas, a large collection of stories which has been completely translated into English by the late Professor E. B. Cowell, Dr. W. H. D. Rouse, and other scholars (6 volumes, Cambridge, 1895-1907).
Diodorus Siculus, x. 6. 1-3; Jamblichus, De Pythagorica vita, xiv. 63; Porphyry, Vita Pythag. 26 sq.; Ovid, Metamorph. xv. 160 sqq. According to Heraclides Ponticus, the philosopher remembered his personal identity in four different human lives before he was born into the world as Pythagoras (Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 1. 4 sq.). See further E. Rohde, Psyche3 (Leipsic and Tübingen, 1903), ii. 417 sqq.
Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 1. 4 and 36.
Jamblichus, De Pythagorica vita, xxiv. 107-109; Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11.
Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 2. 77; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 208, frag. 117.
Sextus Empiricus, ix. 129; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 213 sq., frag. 137.
Compare Sextus Empiricus, ix. 127-130.
Plutarch, Quaest. Conviv. iii. 1. 2. 7; Aulus Gellius, iv. 11. 9; H. Diels, op. cit. i. p. 214, fragments 140, 141.
As to Pythagoras in this respect, see E. Rohde, Psyche3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 161 sqq.
Plutarch, De exilio, 17; id., De esu carnium, i. 7. 4; Clement of Alexandria, Strom. iv. 4. 12, p. 569 ed. Potter; Hippolytus, Refutatio omnium Haeresium, vii. 29, p. 388 ed. L. Duncker and F. G. Schneidewin; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 207 sq., fragments 115, 119.
Porphyry, De antro nympharum, 8.
H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 208 sq., frag. 121.
Clement of Alexandria, Strom. iii. 3. 14, iv. 23. 152, v. 14. 123, pp. 516 sq., 632, 722 ed. Potter; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 207, 209, 215 sq., fragments 115, 124, 144-147.
Empedocles is cited by Aristotle as an example of the melancholy which he believed to be characteristic of men of genius. See Aristotle, Problem. 30, p. 953 a 27 ed. Im. Bekker.
Stobaeus, Eclogae, i. 41. 60 (vol. i. p. 331 ed. A. Meineke); Plutarch, De esu carnium ii. 4. 4; H. Diels, op. cit. i. p. 210, frag. 126.
It seems to be fairly certain that Buddha died and Empedocles was born somewhere about the year 480 b.c. Hence it is difficult to suppose that the ideas of the former should have percolated from India to Greece, or rather to Sicily, in the lifetime of the latter. As to their respective dates see H. Oldenberg, Buddha5 (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1906), pp. 115, 227; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) p. 678 note 1.
Plutarch, Adversus Coloten, 10; Aristotle, De Xenophane, 2, p. 975 a 39-b 4 ed. Im. Bekker; H. Diels, op. cit. i. pp. 175, 176, fragments 8 and 12.
The evidence, consisting of the testimonies of ancient authorities and the fragments of Empedocles's own writings, is fully collected by H. Diels in his excellent work Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Zweite Auflage, i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 158 sqq., 173 sqq. Compare Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 1 sqq.; H. Ritter et L. Preller, Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta, Editio Quinta (Gothae, 1875), pp. 91 sqq.; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 678 sqq.
Herbert Spencer, First Principles, Third Edition (London, 1875), pp. 536 sq.
On the discovery of the atomic disintegration of certain chemical elements, and the general question (Evolution or Dissolution?) raised by that discovery, see W. C. D. Whetham, “The Evolution of Matter,” in Darwin and Modern Science (Cambridge, 1909), pp. 565-582, particularly his concluding paragraph: “In the strict sense of the word, the process of atomic disintegration revealed to us by the new science of radio-activity can hardly be called evolution. In each case radio-active change involves the breaking up of a heavier, more complex atom into lighter and simpler fragments. Are we to regard this process as characteristic of the tendencies in accord with which the universe has reached its present state, and is passing to its unknown future? Or have we chanced upon an eddy in a backwater, opposed to the main stream of advance? In the chaos from which the present universe developed, was matter composed of large highly complex atoms, which have formed the simpler elements by radio-active or rayless disintegration? Or did the primaeval substance consist of isolated electrons, which have slowly come together to form the elements, and yet have left here and there an anomaly such as that illustrated by the unstable family of uranium and radium, or by some such course are returning to their state of primaeval simplicity?”
H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) pp. 190 sqq.; Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum, ed. F. G. A. Mullach, i. (Paris, 1875) pp. 8 sqq.; H. Ritter und L. Preller, Historia Philosophiae Graecae et Latinae ex fontium locis contexta5 (Gothae, 1875), pp. 102 sq.; E. Zeller, Die Philosophie der Griechen, i.4 (Leipsic, 1876) pp. 718 sqq.
Aristotle, Physic. Auscult. ii. 8, p. 198 b 29 sqq., ed. Im. Bekker; ὅπου μὲν οὖν ἅπαντα συνέβη ὥσπερ κὰν εἰ ἔνεκά του ἐγίνετο, ταῦτα μὲν ἐσωθη ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου συστάντα ἐπιτηδείως; ὅσα δὲ μὴ οὕτως, ἀπώλετο καὶ ἀπόλλυται, καθάπερ Ἐμπεδοκλῆς λέγει τὰ βουγενῆ ἀνδρόπρῳρα. This passage is quoted by Darwin in the “Historical Sketch” prefixed to The Origin of Species with the remark, “We here see the principle of natural selection shadowed forth, but how little Aristotle fully comprehended the principle, is shown by his remarks on the formation of the teeth.” Darwin omits Aristotle's reference to Empedocles, apparently deeming it irrelevant or unimportant. Had he been fully acquainted with the philosophical speculations of Empedocles, we can scarcely doubt that Darwin would have included him among the pioneers of evolution.
Diogenes Laertius, Vit. Philosoph. viii. 2. 62; H. Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,2 i. (Berlin, 1906) p. 205, frag. 112. Compare The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 390.
Plato, Phaedo, pp. 81 b-84 c; Republic, x. pp. 617 d-620 d; Timaeus, pp. 41 d-42 d; Phaedrus, p. 249 b.
This is the view of E. Zeller (Die Philosophie der Griechen, ii.3 Leipsic, 1875, pp. 706 sqq.), Sir W. E. Geddes (on Plato, Phaedo, p. 81 e), and J. Adam (on Plato, Republic, x. p. 618 a). We have no right, with some interpreters ancient and modern, to dissolve the theory into an allegory because it does not square with our ideas.
In our own time the theory of transmigration is favoured by Dr. McTaggart, who argues that human beings may have lived before birth and may live many, perhaps an infinite number of, lives after death. Like Plato he further suggests that the nature of the body into which a person transmigrates at death may be appropriate to and determined by his or her character in the preceding life. See J. McT. Ellis McTaggart, Some Dogmas of Religion (London, 1906), pp. 112-139. However, Dr. McTaggart seems only to contemplate the transmigration of human souls into human bodies; he does not discuss the possibility of their transmigration into animals.
This is known, for example, of the Yuchi Indians, for among them “members of each clan will not do violence to wild animals having the form and name of their totem. For instance, the Bear clan people never molest bears.” See F. G. Speck, Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians (Philadelphia, 1909), p. 70. But in spite of the attention which has been paid to American totemism, we possess very little information as to the vital point of the system, the relation between a man and his totemic animal. Compare Totemism and Exogamy, iii. 88 sq., 311.
See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 85 sqq. However, Collins reports that among the natives of New South Wales the women were “compelled to sit in their canoe, exposed to the fervour of the mid-day sun, hour after hour, chaunting their little song, and inviting the fish beneath them to take their bait” (D. Collins, An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, London, 1804, p. 387). This may have been a form of conciliation like that employed by the American Indians towards the fish and game. But the account is not precise enough to allow us to speak with confidence. It is sometimes reported that the Australians attempt to appease the kangaroos which they have killed, assuring the animals of their affection and begging them not to come back after death to torment them. But the writer who mentions the report disbelieves it. See Dom Théophile Bérengier, in Les Missions Catholiques, x. (1878) p. 197.
G. Catlin, O-Kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other Customs of the Mandans (London, 1867), Folium reservatum; Lewis and Clarke, Travels to the Source of the Missouri River (London, 1815), i. 205 sq.
A. Bastian, in Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte, 1870-71, p. 59. J. Reinegg (Beschreibung des Kaukasus, Gotha, St. Petersburg, and Hildesheim, 1796-97, ii. 12 sq.) describes what seems to be a sacrament of the Abghazses (Abchases). It takes place in the middle of autumn. A white ox called Ogginn appears from a holy cave, which is also called Ogginn. It is caught and led about amongst the assembled men (women are excluded) amid joyful cries. Then it is killed and eaten. Any man who did not get at least a scrap of the sacred flesh would deem himself most unfortunate. The bones are then carefully collected, burned in a great hole, and the ashes buried there.
A. Bastian, Die Völker des östlichen Asien, vi. (Jena, 1871) pp. 632, note. On the Kalmucks as a people of shepherds and on their diet of mutton, see J. G. Georgi, Beschreibung aller Nationen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1776), pp. 406 sq., compare p. 207; B. Bergmann, Nomadische Streifereien unter den Kalmücken (Riga, 1804-5), ii. 80 sqq., 122; P. S. Pallas, Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen des russischen Reichs (St. Petersburg, 1771-1776), i. 319, 325. According to Pallas, it is only rich Kalmucks who commonly kill their sheep or cattle for eating; ordinary Kalmucks do not usually kill them except in case of necessity or at great merry-makings. It is, therefore, especially the rich who need to make expiation.
W. E. Marshall, Travels amongst the Todas (London, 1873), pp. 129 sq.
W. E. Marshall, op. cit. pp. 80 sq., 130.
R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Madi or Moru Tribe of Central Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, xii. (1882-84) pp. 336 sq.
Mutton appears to be now eaten by the tribe as a regular article of food (R. W. Felkin, op. cit. p. 307), but this is not inconsistent with the original sanctity of the sheep.
See W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites2 (London, 1894), pp. 344 sqq. As to communion by means of an external application, see above, pp. 162sqq.
Panjab Notes and Queries, ii. p. 91, § 555 (March 1885).
See Ch. Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities (London, 1882-1883), iii. 195 sq. (Bohn's ed.); Rev. C. Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds (London, 1886), p. 36; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 288 sqq. The names for the bird are βασιλίσκος, regulus, rex avium (Pliny, Nat. Hist. viii. 90, x. 203), re di siepe, reyezuelo, roitelet, roi des oiseaux, Zaunkönig, etc. On the custom of hunting the wren see further N. W. Thomas, “The Scape-Goat in European Folklore,” Folk-lore, xvii. (1906) pp. 270 sqq., 280; Miss L. Eckstein, Comparative Studies in Nursery Rhymes (London, 1906), pp. 172 sqq. Miss Eckstein suggests that the killing of the bird called “the king” may have been a mitigation of an older custom of killing the real king.
J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 194.
R. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, n.d.), p. 188.
Ibid. p. 186.
P. Sébillot, Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne (Paris, 1882), ii. 214.
A. Bosquet, La Normandie Romanesque et Merveilleuse (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 221; E. Rolland, op. cit. ii. 294 sq.; P. Sébillot, l.c.; Rev. C. Swainson, op. cit. p. 42.
G. Waldron, Description of the Isle of Man (reprinted for the Manx Society, Douglas, 1865), pp. 49 sqq.; J. Train, Account of the Isle of Man (Douglas, 1845), ii. 124 sqq., 141.
In The Morning Post of Wednesday, 27th December 1911, we read that “the observance of the ancient and curious custom known as ‘the hunt of the wren’ was general throughout the Isle of Man yesterday. Parties of boys bearing poles decked with ivy and streamers went from house to house singing to an indescribable tune a quaint ballad detailing the pursuit and death of the wren, subsequently demanding recompense, which is rarely refused. Formerly boys actually engaged in the chase, stoning the bird to death with the object of distributing the feathers ‘for luck.’ ” From this account we may gather that in the Isle of Man the hunting of the wren is now merely nominal and that the pretence of it is kept up only as an excuse for collecting gratuities. It is thus that the solemnity of ritual dwindles into the pastime of children. I have to thank Mrs. J. H. Deane, of 41 Iverna Court, Kensington, for kindly sending me the extract from The Morning Post.
Ch. Vallancey, Collectanea de rebus Hibernicis, iv. (Dublin, 1786) p. 97; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 195.
G. H. Kinahan, “Notes on Irish Folk-lore,” Folk-lore Record, iv. (1881) p. 108; Rev. C. Swainson, Folk-lore of British Birds, pp. 36 sq.; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 297; Professor W. Ridgeway, in Academy, 10th May 1884, p. 332; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), p. 497; L. L. Duncan, “Further Notes from County Leitrim,” Folk-lore, v. (1894) p. 197. The custom is still, or was down to a few years ago, practised in County Meath, where the verses sung are practically the same as those in the text. Wrens are scarce in that part of the country, “but as the boys go round more for the fun of dressing up and collecting money, the fact that there is no wren in their basket is quite immaterial.” These particulars I learn from a letter of Miss A. H. Singleton, dated Appey-Leix, Ireland, 24th February 1904.
W. Henderson, Folk-lore of the Northern Counties (London, 1879), p. 125.
Rev. C. Swainson, op. cit. pp. 40 sq.
Madame Clément, Histoire des Fêtes civiles et religieuses, etc., de la Belgique Méridionale (Avesnes, 1846), pp. 466-468; A. De Nore, Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des provinces de France (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 77 sqq.; E. Rolland, Faune populaire de la France, ii. 295 sq.; J. W. Wolf, Beiträge zur deutschen Mythologie, ii. (Göttingen, 1857) pp. 437 sq. The ceremony was abolished at the revolution of 1789, revived after the restoration, and suppressed again after 1830.
E. Rolland, op. cit. ii. 296 sq.
C. S. Sonnini, Travels in Upper and Lower Egypt, translated from the French (London, 1800), pp. 11 sq.; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, iii. 198. The “hunting of the wren” may be compared with a Swedish custom. On the 1st of May children rob the magpies' nests of both eggs and young. These they carry in a basket from house to house in the village and shew to the housewives, while one of the children sings some doggerel lines containing a threat that, if a present is not given, the hens, chickens, and eggs will fall a prey to the magpie. They receive bacon, eggs, milk, etc., upon which they afterwards feast. See L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden (London, 1870), pp. 237 sq. The resemblance of such customs to the “swallow song” and “crow song” of the ancient Greeks (on which see Athenaeus, viii. 59 sq., pp. 359, 360) is obvious and has been remarked before now. Probably the Greek swallow-singers and crow-singers carried about dead swallows and crows or effigies of them. The “crow song” is referred to in a Greek inscription found in the south of Russia ἕξ δεκάδας λυκάβας κεκορώνικα. See Compte Rendu of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, St. Petersburg, 1877, pp. 276 sqq. In modern Greece and Macedonia it is still customary for children on 1st March to go about the streets singing spring songs and carrying a wooden swallow, which is kept turning on a cylinder. See J. Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie,4 ii. 636; A. Witzschel, Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen (Vienna, 1878), p. 301; G. F. Abbott, Macedonian Folk-lore (Cambridge, 1903), p. 18; J. C. Lawson, Modern Greek Folklore and ancient Greek Religion (Cambridge, 1910), p. 35. The custom of making the image of the swallow revolve on a pivot, which is practised in Macedonia as well as Greece, may be compared with the pirouetting of the girl in the Servian rain-making ceremony. The meaning of these revolutions is obscure. See The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 273, 275.
S. Johnson, A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, pp. 128 sq. (The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., edited by the Rev. R. Lynam, London, 1825, vol. vi.).
John Ramsay, Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii. 438 sq. The custom is clearly referred to in the “Penitential of Theodore,” quoted by Kemble, Saxons in England, i. 525; Ch. Elton, Origins of English History (London, 1882), p. 411: “Si quis in Kal. Januar. in cervulo vel vitula vadit, id est in ferarum habitus se communicant, et vestiuntur pellibus pecudum et assumunt capita bestiarum,” etc.
J. G. Campbell, Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland (Glasgow, 1902), pp. 230-232. Shinty is the Scotch name for hockey: the game is played with a ball and curved sticks or clubs.
R. Chambers, Popular Rhymes of Scotland, New Edition (London and Edinburgh, n.d.), pp. 166 sq.
See above, vol. i. pp. 246 sq.
W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte (Berlin, 1877), p. 183.
O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Fest- Kalender aus Böhmen (Prague, n.d., preface dated 1861), pp. 49-52. Compare E. Cortet, Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses (Paris, 1867), p. 83. Similar processions with a Shrovetide Bear take place among some of the German peasantry of Moravia, though there the mummer is said to be wrapt in skins and furs rather than in straw and to personate Winter. See W. Müller, Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren (Vienna and Olmütz, 1893), p. 431. This latter interpretation may be due to a misunderstanding of the old custom.
On this custom see The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, i. 137 sqq.
Real bears and other animals were formerly promenaded about both town and country with rags of coloured cloth attached to them. Scraps of these cloths and hairs of the animals were given, rather perhaps sold, to all who asked for them as preservatives against sickness and the evil eye. The practice was condemned by the Council of Constance. See J. B. Thiers, Traité des Superstitions (Paris, 1679), pp. 315 sq. We need not suppose that these animals represented the corn-spirit.
W. Mannhardt, Antike Wald- und Feldkulte, pp. 183 sq.
See above, vol. i. pp. 281 sqq.
W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 190.
W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 188.
W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 191-193.
L. Lloyd, Peasant Life in Sweden (London, 1870), pp. 184 sq.; W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 196 sq.
W. Mannhardt, op. cit. p. 196.
W. Mannhardt, op. cit. pp. 197 sq.
See above, vol. i. pp. 275, 298 sqq.
Letter of Professor G. C. Moore Smith, dated The University, Sheffield, 13th January, 1909.
R. Chambers, The Book of Days (London and Edinburgh, 1886), i. 94 sq.; J. Brand, Popular Antiquities, New Edition (London, 1883), i. 506 sqq.; T. F. Thiselton Dyer, British Popular Customs (London, 1876), pp. 37 sqq.; O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, Das festliche Jahr (Leipsic, 1863), pp. 27 sq. Compare W. Mannhardt, Baumkultus (Berlin, 1875), pp. 557 sq.; T. Fairman Ordish, “English Folk-drama,” Folk-lore, iv. (1893) pp. 163 sqq.; Folk-lore, viii. (1897) p. 184; E. K. Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage (Oxford, 1903), i. 208-210; H. Munro Chadwick, The Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907), p. 238. Counties in which the custom of Plough Monday is reported to have been observed are Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire. Thus the custom would seem to have been characteristic of a group of counties in the centre of England. In January 1887, I witnessed the ceremony in the streets of Cambridge. Wooden ploughs of a primitive sort were dragged about by bands of young men who were profusely decked with scarves and ribbons. They ran at a good pace, and beside them ran a companion with a money-box collecting donations. Amongst them I did not observe any woman or man in female attire. Compare The Folk-lore Journal, v. (1887) p. 161.
See above, vol. i. pp. 25 sqq.
G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, xi. (1908) pp. 407 sq.
G. Kazarow, “Karnevalbräuche in Bulgarien,” Archiv für Religionswissenschaft, xi. (1908) pp. 408 sq.
Major A. Playfair, The Garos (London, 1909), pp. 94 sq.
See above, p. 21.
See my note on Pausanias, viii. 37. 3 (vol. iv. pp. 375 sqq.).
