S.
Sacrifices, private, 1. 328 B, 331 D;
—in atonement, 2. 364;
—human, in Arcadia, 8. 565 D.
Sailors, necessary in the state, 2. 371 B.
Sarpedon, 3. 388 C.
Sauces, not mentioned in Homer, 3. 404 D.
Scamander, beleaguered by Achilles, 3. 391 B.
Scepticism, danger of, 7. 538, 539.
Science (ἐπιστήμη), a division of the intellectual world, 7. 533 E (cp. 6. 511);
—the sciences distinguished by their object, 4. 438 [cp. Charm. 171]; not to be studied with a view to utility only, 7. 527 A, 529, 530; their unity, ib.
531; use hypotheses, ib.
533; correlation of, ib.
537.
Sculpture, must only express the image of the good, 3. 401 B; painting of, 4. 420 D [cp. Laws 2. 668 E].
Scylla, 9. 588 C.
Scythian, Anacharsis the, 10. 600 A;
—Scythians, the, characterized by spirit or passion, 4. 435 E.
Self-indulgence in men and states, 4. 425 E, 426;
—self-interest the natural guide of men, 2. 359 B;
—self-made men bad company, 1. 330 C;
—self-mastery, 4. 430, 431. 370
Sense, objects of, twofold, 7. 523; knowledge given by, imperfect,
ibid.
; 10. 602; sense and intellect, 7. 524:
—Senses, the, classed among faculties, 5. 477 C.
Seriphian, story of Themistocles and the, 1. 329 E.
Servants, old family, 8. 549 E.
Sex in the world below, 10. 618 B;
—sexes to follow the same training, 5. 451, 466 [cp. Laws 7. 805]; equality of, advantageous, ib.
456, 457; relation between, ib.
458 foll. [cp. Laws 8. 835 E]; freedom of intercourse between, in a democracy, 8. 563 B. Cp. Women.
Sexual desires, 5. 458 E [cp. Laws 6. 783 A; 8. 835 E].
Shadows, 6. 510 A;
—knowledge of shadows (εἰκασία), one of the faculties of the soul, 6. 511 E; 7. 533 E.
Shepherd, the analogy of, with the ruler, 1. 343, 345 [cp. Pol. 275].
Shopkeepers, necessary in the state, 2. 371 [cp. Laws 11. 918].
Short sight, 2. 368 D.
Sicily, ‘can tell of Charondas,’ 10. 599 E;
—Sicilian cookery, 3. 404 D.
Sight, placed in the class of faculties, 5. 477 C; requires in addition to vision and colour, a third element, light, 6. 507; the most wonderful of the senses,
ibid.
; compared to mind, ib.
508; 7. 532 A; illusions of, 7. 523; 10. 602, 603 D:
—the world of sight, 7. 517.
Sign, the, of Socrates, 6. 496 C.
Silver, mingled by the God in the auxiliaries, 3. 415 A (cp. 416 E; 8. 547 A);
—[and gold] not allowed to the guardians, 3. 416 E; 4. 419, 422 D; 5. 464 D (cp. 8. 543).
Simonides, his definition of justice discussed, 1. 331 D–335 E; a sage, ib. 335 E.
Simplicity, the first principle of education, 3. 397 foll., 400 E, 404; the two kinds of, ib. 400 E; of the good man, ib. 409 A; in diet, 8. 559 C (cp. 3. 404 D).
Sin, punishment of, 2. 363; 10. 614 foll. Cp. Hades, World below.
Sirens, harmony of the, 10. 617 B.
Skilled person, the, cannot err (Thrasymachus), 1. 340 D.
Slavery, more to be feared than death, 3. 387 A; of Hellenes condemned, 5. 469 B.
Slaves, the uneducated man harsh towards, 8. 549 A; enjoy great freedom in a democracy, ib. 563 B; always inclined to rise against their masters, 9. 578 [cp. Laws 6. 776, 777].
Smallness and greatness, 4. 438 B; 5. 479 B; 7. 523, 524; 9. 575 C; 10. 602 D, 605 C.
Smell, pleasures of, 9. 584 B.
Snake-charming, 1. 358 B.
Socrates, goes down to the Peiraeus to see the feast of Bendis, 1. 327; detained by Polemarchus and Glaucon, ibid. ; converses with Cephalus, ib. 328–332; trembles before Thrasymachus, ib. 336 D; his irony, ib. 337 A; his poverty, ib. D; a sharper in argument, ib. 340 D; ignorant of what justice is, ib. 354 C; his powers of fascination, 2. 358 A; requested by Glaucon and Adeimantus to praise justice per se, ib. 367 B; cannot refuse to help justice, ib. 368 C; 4. 427 D; his oath ‘by the dog,’ 3. 399 E; 8. 567 E; 9. 592 A; hoped to have evaded discussing the subject of women and children, 5. 449, 472, 473 (cp. 6. 502 E); his love of truth, 5. 451 A; 6. 504; his power in argument, 6. 487 B; not unaccustomed to speak in parables, ib. E; his sign, ib. 496 C; his earnestness in behalf of philosophy, 7. 536 B; his reverence for Homer, 10. 595 C, 607 (cp. 3. 391 A). 371
Soldiers, must form a separate class, 2. 374; the diet suited for, 3. 404 D (cp. Guardians);
—women to be soldiers, 5. 452, 466, 471 E;
—punishment of soldiers for cowardice, ib.
468 A. Cp. Warrior.
Solon, famous at Athens, 10. 599 E;
—quoted, 7. 536 D.
Son, the supposititious, parable of, 7. 537 E.
Song, parts of, 3. 398 D.
Sophists, the, their view of justice, 1. 338 foll.; verbal quibbles of, ib. 340; the public the great Sophist, 6. 492; the Sophists compared to feeders of a beast, ib. 493.
Sophocles, a remark of, quoted, 1. 329 B.
Sorrow, not to be indulged, 3. 387; 10. 603–606; has a relaxing effect on the soul, 4. 430 A; 10. 606.
Soul, the, has ends and excellences, 1. 353 D; beauty in the soul, 3. 401; the fair soul in the fair body, ib.
402 D; sympathy of soul and body, 5. 462 D, 464 B; conversion of the soul from darkness to light, 7. 518, 521, 525 [cp. Laws 12. 957 E]; requires the aid of calculation and intelligence in order to interpret the intimations of sense, ib.
523, 524; 10. 602; has more truth and essence than the body, 9. 585 D;
—better and worse principles in the soul, 4. 431; the soul divided into reason, spirit, appetite, ib.
435–442; 6. 504 A; 8. 550 A; 9. 571, 580 E, 581 [cp. Tim. 69 E–72, 89 E; Laws 9. 863]; faculties of the soul, 6. 511 E; 7. 533 E; oppositions in the soul, 10. 603 D [cp. Soph. 228 A; Laws 10. 896 D];
—the lame soul, 3. 401; 7. 535 [cp. Tim. 44; Soph. 228];
—the soul marred by meanness, 6. 495 E [cp. Gorg. 524 E];
—immortality of the soul, 10. 608 foll., (cp. 6. 498 C);
—number of souls does not increase, 10. 611 A;
—the soul after death, ib.
614 foll.;
—transmigration of souls, ib.
617 [cp. Phaedr. 249; Tim. 90 E foll.];
—the soul impure and disfigured while in the body, ib.
611 [cp. Phaedo 81];
—compared to a many-headed monster, 9. 588; to the images of the sea-god Glaucus, 10. 611;
—like the eye, 6. 508; 7. 518;
—harmony of the soul, produced by temperance, 4. 430, 442, 443 (cp. 9. 591 D, and Laws 2. 653 B);
—eye of the soul, 7. 518 D, 527 E, 533 D, 540 A;
—five forms of the state and soul, 4. 445; 5. 449; 9. 577.
Soul. [The psychology of the Republic, while agreeing generally with that of the other Dialogues, is in some respects a modification or developement of their conclusions.
—The division of the soul into three elements, reason, spirit, appetite, here first assumes a precise form, and henceforward has a permanent place in the language of philosophy (cp. Introd. p. lxvii). On this division the distinction between forms of government is based (see s. v.
Government). Virtue, again, is the harmony or accord of the different elements, when the dictates of reason are enforced by passion against the appetites, while vice is the anarchy or discord of the soul when passion and appetite join in rebellion against reason (cp. 4. 444; 10. 609 foll.; Soph. 228; Pol. 296 D; Laws 10. 906 C].
—Regarded from the intellectual side the soul is analysed into four faculties, reason, understanding, faith, knowledge of shadows. These severally correspond to the four divisions of knowledge (6. 511 E), two for intellect and two for opinion; and thus arises the Platonic ‘proportion,’—being : becoming :: intellect : opinion, and science : belief 372 :: understanding : knowledge of shadows. These divisions are partly real, partly formed by a logical process, which, as in so many distinctions of ancient philosophers, has outrun fact, and are further illustrated and explained by the allegory of the cave in Book VII (see Introduction, p. xciv).
—The pre-existence and the immortality of the soul are assumed. The doctrine of ἀνάμνησις or ‘remembrance of a previous birth’ is not so much dwelt upon as in the Meno, Phaedo, or Phaedrus, neither is it made a proof of immortality (Meno 86; Phaedo 73). It is apparently alluded to in the story of Er, where we are told that ‘the pilgrims drank the waters of Unmindfulness; the foolish took too deep a draught, but the wise were more moderate’ (10. 621 A). In the Xth Book Glaucon is supposed to receive with amazement Socrates’ confident assertion of immortality, although a
previous allusion to another state of existence has passed unheeded (6. 498 D); and in earlier parts of the discussion (e.g. 2. 362; 3. 386), the censure which is passed on the common representations of Hades implies in itself some belief in a future life [cp. Introduction to Phaedo, Vol. I]. The argument for the immortality of the soul is not drawn out at great length or with the emphasis of the Phaedo. It is chiefly of a verbal character:—All things which perish are destroyed by some inherent evil; but the soul is not destroyed by sin, which is the evil proper to her, and must therefore be immortal (cp. Introd. p. clxvi).
—The condition of the soul after death is represented by Plato in his favourite form of a myth [cp. Meno 81; Phaedo 88; Gorg. 522]. The Pamphylian warrior Er, who is supposed to have died in battle, revives when placed on the funeral pyre and relates his experiences in the other world. He tells how the just are rewarded and the wicked punished, and is privileged to describe the spectacle which he had witnessed of the choice of a new life by the pilgrim souls. The reward of release from bodily existence is not held out to the philosopher (Phaedo 114 C), but his wisdom, which has a deeper root than habit (10. 619), preserves him from overhaste in his choice and ensures him a happy destiny.
—The transmigration of souls is represented in the myth much as in the Phaedrus and Timaeus. Plato in all likelihood derived the doctrine from an Oriental source, but through Pythagorean channels. It probably had a real hold on his mind, as it agreed, or could be made to agree, with the conviction, which he elsewhere expresses, of the remedial nature of punishment [cp. Protag. 323; Gorg. 523–525].
Sounds in music, 7. 531 A.
Sparta. See Lacedaemon.
Spectator, the, unconsciously influenced by what he sees and hears, 10. 605, 606 [cp. Laws 2. 656 A, 659 C];
—the philosopher the spectator of all time and all existence, 6. 486 A [cp. Theaet. 173 E].
Spendthrifts, in Greek states, 8. 564.
Spercheius, the river-god, 3. 391 B.
Spirit, must be combined with gentleness in the guardians, 2. 375; 3. 410; 6. 503 [cp. Laws 5. 731 B]; characteristic of northern nations, 4. 435 E; found in quite young children, ib.
441 A [cp. Laws; 12. 373 963]:
—the spirited (or passionate) element in the soul, ib.
440 foll.; 6. 504 A; 8. 550 A; 9. 572 A, 580 E; must be subject to the rational part, 4. 441 E [cp. Tim. 30 C, 70, 89 D]; predominant in the timocratic state and man, 8. 548, 550 B; characterised by ambition, 9. 581 B; its pleasures, ib.
586 D; the favourite object of the poet’s imitation, 10. 604, 605.
Stars, motion of the, 7. 529, 530; 10. 616 E.
State, relation of, to the individual, 2. 368; 4. 434, 441; 5. 462; 8. 544; 9. 577 B [cp. Laws 3. 689; 5. 739; 9. 875, 877 C; 11. 923]; origin of, 2. 369 foll. [cp. Laws 3. 678 foll.]; should be in unity, 4. 422; 5. 463 [cp. Laws 5. 739]; place of the virtues in, 4. 428 foll.; virtue of state and individual, ib.
441; 6. 498 E; family life in, 5. 449 [cp. Laws 5. 740]:
—the luxurious state, 2. 372 D foll.:
—[the best state]; classes must be kept distinct, ib.
374; 3. 379 E, 415 A; 4. 421, 433 A, 434, 441 E, 443; 5. 453 (cp. 8. 552 A, and Laws 8. 846 E); the rulers must be philosophers, 2. 376; 5. 473; 6. 484, 497 foll., 501, 503 B; 7. 520, 521, 525 B, 540; 8. 543 (cp. Rulers); the government must have the monopoly of lying, 2. 382; 3. 389 A, 414 C; 5. 459 D [cp. Laws 2. 663 E]; the poets to be banished, 3. 398 A; 8. 568 B; 10. 595 foll., 605 A, 607 A [cp. Laws 7. 817]; the older must bear rule, the younger obey, 3. 412 [cp. Laws 3. 690 A; 4. 714 E]; women, children, and goods to be common, ib.
416; 5. 450 E, 457 foll., 462, 464; 8. 543 A [cp. Laws 5. 739; 7. 807 B]; must be happy as a whole, 4. 420 D; 5. 466 A; 7. 519 E; will easily master other states in war, 4. 422; must be of a size which is not inconsistent with unity, ib.
423 [cp. Laws 5. 737]; composed of three classes, traders, auxiliaries, counsellors, ib.
441 A; may be either a monarchy or an aristocracy, ib.
445 C (cp. 9. 576 D); will form one family, 5. 463 [cp. Pol. 259]; will be free from quarrels and law-suits, 2. 378; 5. 464, 465;
—is it possible? 5. 471, 473; 6. 499; 7. 540 [cp. 7. 520
and Laws 4. 711 E; 5. 739]; framed after the heavenly pattern, 6. 500 E; 7. 540 A; 9. 592; how to be commenced, 6. 501; 7. 540; manner of its decline, 8. 546 [cp. Crit. 120];
—the best state that in which the rulers least desire office, 7. 520, 521:
—the four imperfect forms of states, 4. 445 B; 8. 544 [cp. Pol. 291 foll., 391 foll.]; succession of states, 8. 545 foll. (cp. Government, forms of):
—existing states not one but many, 4. 423 A; nearly all corrupt, 6. 496; 7. 519, 520; 9. 592.
State. [The polity of which Plato ‘sketches the outline’ in the Republic may be analysed into two principal elements, I, an Hellenic state of the older or Spartan type, with some traits borrowed from Athens, II, an ideal city in which the citizens have all things in common, and the government is carried on by a class of philosopher rulers who are selected by merit. These two elements are not perfectly combined; and, as Aristotle complains (Pol. ii. 5, § 18), very much is left ill-defined and uncertain.
—I. Like Hellenic cities in general, the number of the citizens is not to be great. The size of the state is limited by the requirement that ‘it shall not be larger or smaller than is consistent with unity.’ [The ‘convenient number’ 5040, which is 374 suggested in the Laws (v. 737), is regarded by Aristotle (Pol. ii. 6, § 6) as an ‘enormous multitude.’] Again, the individual is subordinate to the state. When Adeimantus complains of the hard life which the citizens will lead, ‘like mercenaries in a garrison’ (4. 419), he is answered by Socrates that if the happiness of the whole is secured, the happiness of the parts will inevitably follow. Once more, war is supposed to be the normal condition of the state, and military service is imposed upon all. The profession of arms is the only one in which the citizen may properly engage. Trade is regarded as dishonourable:—‘those who are good for nothing else sit in the Agora buying and selling’ (2. 371 D); the warrior can spare no time for such an employment (ib.
374 C). [In the Laws Plato’s
ideas enlarge; he thinks that peace is to be preferred to war (1. 628); and he speculates on the possibility of redeeming trade from reproach by compelling some of the best citizens to open a shop or keep a tavern (11. 918).]—In these respects, as well as in the introduction of common meals, Plato was probably influenced by the traditional ideal of Sparta [cp. Introd. p. clxx]. The Athenian element appears in the intellectual training of the citizens, and generally in the atmosphere of grace and refinement which they are to breathe (see s. v.
Art). The restless energy of the Athenian character is perhaps reflected in the discipline imposed upon the ruling class (7. 540), who when they have reached fifty are dispensed from continuous public service, but must then devote themselves to abstract study, and also be willing to take their turn when necessary at the helm of state [cp. Laws 7. 807; Thucyd. i. 70; ii. 40].
—II. The most peculiar features of Plato’s state are (1) the community of property, (2) the position of women, (3) the government of philosophers. (1) The first (see
s. v.
), though suggested in some measure by the example of Sparta or Crete [cp. Arist. Pol. ii. 5, § 6], is not known to have been actually practised anywhere in Hellas, unless possibly among such a body as the Pythagorean brotherhood. (2) Nothing in all the Republic was probably stranger to his contemporaries than the place which Plato assigns to women in the state. The community of wives and children, though carefully guarded by him from the charge of licentiousness (5. 458 E), would appear worse in Athenian eyes than the traditional ‘licence’ of the Spartan women [Arist. Pol. ii. 9, § 5), which, so far as it really existed, no doubt arose out of an excessive regard to physical considerations in marriage. Again, the equal share in education, in war, and in administration which the women are supposed to enjoy in Plato’s state, was, if not so revolting, quite as contrary to common Hellenic sentiment [cp. Thucyd. ii. 45]. The Spartan women exercised a great influence on public affairs, but this was mainly indirect [cp. Laws 7. 806; Arist. Pol. ii. 9, § 8]; they did not hold office or learn the use of arms. At Athens, as is well known, the women, of the upper classes at least, lived in an almost Oriental seclusion, and were wholly absorbed in household duties (Laws 7. 805 E). (3) Finally, the government of philosophers had no analogy in the Hellenic world of 375 Plato’s time. He may have taken the suggestion from the stories of the
Pythagorean rule in Magna Graecia. But it is also possible that these accounts of the brotherhood of Pythagoras, some of which have reached us on very doubtful authority, may be themselves to a considerable extent coloured and distorted by features adapted from the Republic. Whether this is the case or not, we can hardly doubt that Plato was chiefly indebted to his own imagination for his kingdom of philosophers, or that it remained to himself an ideal, rather than a state which would ever ‘play her part in actual life’ (Tim. 19, 20). It is at least significant that he never finished the Critias, as though he were unable to embody, even in a mythical form, the ‘city of which the pattern is laid up in heaven.’]
Statesmen in their own imagination, 4. 426.
Statues, polished for a decision, 2. 361 D; painted, 4. 420 D.
Steadiness of character, apt to be accompanied by stupidity, 6. 503 [cp. Theaet. 144 B].
Stesichorus, says that Helen was never at Troy, 9. 586 C.
Stories, improper, not to be told to children, 2. 377; 3. 391. Cp. Children, Education.
Strength, rule of, 1. 338.
Style of poetry, 3. 392;
—styles, various, ib.
397.
Styx, 3. 387 B.
Suits, will be unknown in the best state, 5. 464 E.
Sun, the, compared with the idea of good, 6. 508; not sight, but the author of sight, ib.
509;
—‘the sun of Heracleitus,’ ib.
498 A.
Supposititious son, parable of the, 7. 538.
Sympathy, of soul and body, 5. 462 D, 464 B; aroused by poetry, 10. 605 B.
Syracusan dinners, 3. 404 D.
